Institute of Development Research (IDR)

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Urban Poverty and the Survival Strategies of The Poor in a sella Town, Oromiya National Regional State
(Addis Ababa University, 9-06) Debebe, Sisay; Mulugeta, Solomon
Poverty is multi-faceted issue and deep-rooted in Ethiopia. The country is among the world's poorest nations in terms of human development index. The incidence of poverty in urban center of Ethiopia has been growing fast over the last few years as compared to the rural area. The main emphasis of this study is to assess the level and status of urban poverty and survival strategies of poor households in Asella town. Asella is the capital city of Arsi zone in Oromiya regional state. In this study, analysis was made using primary dala collecled Fom 300 sample households selected through systematic random sampling Fom purposively selected six Kebeles of the town. Structured questionnaire was used to collect pertinent data form the household,. Descriptive statistics and statistical analysis (ch -square test) was used to describe the sample households' demographic and socio-economic characteristics; and to test statistical significance benveen poor and non-poor household for some calegorical variables. In addition to the statislical tests a Logit model was employed 10 identifY determinants of urban poverty. COSI of basic need (CBN) approach and poverty indices compulalional formula were also used to identifY the magnitude, incidence, and depth of poverty in the town. The researchfolll1d out that food poverty line and total poverty line for the area are 1506.28 Birr and 2271.86 Birr per adult per year, respectively. Both the food and the total poverty line for the area are higher than the national poverty line calculated for all urban areas in the country. The incidence, depth and severity of urban poverty calc lila led for the areas are 69%, 33%, and 18% respectively while for the food poverty line are 63%, 27% and 15%, respectively. In the study, Variables that are positively correlated Wilh the probability of being poor are: sex, size of household and chronic diseases incidence in Ihe household member. Variable negatively correlated with probabilities of being poor are income, educational level, marital status and hOl/sing lenure. The Logit result shows that Fom different factors hypothesized to determine poverty variables like; sex, f amily size, monthly income, educational level of household head, and chronic diseases incidence in the household member significantly affect the incidence of poverty in the town. The result also has implication for policy makers, researchers, policy implementers and non-governmental agencies to take their parts in minimizing the incidence of poverty. The majority of poor household heads' monthly expenditure by far exceeds their monthly income. To close the gap between their fixed incomes and ever rising expenditure of basic needs, poor households in the town practice various survival and orl coping mechanisms which include: engagement of family members in various informal activities, selling of personal possessions, selling of household assets, renting oul property, leasing part of their dwellings to others, moving from higher rent residential to cheaper residential areas, taking loans from friends orland relatives, sending children abroad, reducing the quality and quantity offood consumed, and reducing number of meals il1lake per day.
The Manpower Approaches to Educational Planning : The Erhiopian Case
(Addis Ababa University, 1976-04) Teklu, Tesfaye
Technical Assistance in Ethiopia With Specific Reference to Undp's country ·programme technical assistance
(Addis Ababa University, 1982-05) Bekele, Narddos; Mulat, Teshome (PhD)
Dry Matter Production And Distribution by Two Maize (Zea Mays.L) Hybrids And Their Parental Lines
(Addis Ababa University, 1982-05) Debelo, Aberra; Makonnen, Dejene (PhD)
A study of dry matter accumulation and N, P distribution and , ther agronomic characters was conducted on two hybrids of maize (Zea mays ~.) and their parental lines. Highly s i gnificant di fference was observed in total and ear dry matter accumulation among the genotypes, the growth stages and growth stage by genotype interacti on. The highest t otal and ear dry matter were produced a t the final stage of maturity. The analysis of l e af and stalk dry ma tter indicated that there was highly signj f '_'Oant difference among genotypes and growth stages. Howevere, there was no interaction. I n general a decreasing tendency of dry matter accumulation was observed in the non grain part as growth stage advancences. This loss is assumed to be due to trans location of carbohydrat~ B t o the grain late in the season as grain development advances. The associa tion bet ween l eaf number and total dry matter production was found t o be positive and significant (r= 0.86). 31 .4% and 68.6% averaged over all the geno types was grain and non grain , respectively. The transl ocati on of shoot dry matter into the ear indicated that H611 and its parental lines are more efficient than S.R. 52 and its parental lines. Highest harvest index of 0.44 and 0.43 was produced by H611 and SR52 , respective ly. Further more, an increasing and a decreasing trend of dry matter production was obs erved in the different plant parts as growth stage advances e xcept for the ear and ' grain . From this study it could be suggested tha t, Parental lines which .. L are effic~nt i n production and distribution of dry matter should be included in future breeding program t o produce high yi e lding hybrids.: The differences observed in the production and translocation of dry matt er aft e r flowering suggested that genotypes having such characters are very impor tant. Eventhough, it is imposible to point out a particular growth stage a t which hybrid vigor is expres ssed , insect pests , diseases , moisture and mutri ent deficienci es which affect the rate o f l eaf development should be ~void e d· inorder to have a healthy plant growth for muximum yie ld production.
Analysis of Household Consumption Patterns in Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 1982-06) Aredo, Dejene; Mulat, Teshome (PhD)
The point o f departure o f this study was a n examination o f the limita tions o f the traditi onal appr oach t o consump ti on a nalysis in the developinG countries . An a l ternative appr oach was developed a nd applie d t o the socio- e c o nomic r ealities o f pos t-revolutionary Ethiopi a . The appr onche ' permitted one t o a nalyse h ousehold c onsumption pat t er ns o f the c ountry fr om diff erent aneles. The s t~ tly suggested that th os e who a r e c oncerned with c onsumption planning Gould be able t o contribute more t o t he de velopment o f the national economy by r e c onsidering their appr oach t o the subject .
Grassland Composition and Current Livestock Feeding Systems in Nekemte Awraja
(1982-06) Taddese, Alemu; Abebe, Biru (PhD)
In thi s study , grassland compos ition and current livestock feeding systems practiced in Nekemte Awra j a were investigated. For the investigation of the grassland compositi on, plant materials from ninteen different sites of this Awraja wer e collected and identified. For the current livestock feeding systems practiced in the Awraj a, rep r esentat ive farmers were interviewed about the current li'ij'stock feeding systems practiced in their respective zones . As the r esult of this study shows , the vegetation of Nekemte Awraja changes with ~hange in elevation and based on this , the region is divided into three main e~ological zones, namely : Highland , Medium altitude and l owland zones. A total of 36 grasses, f our legumes, four s edges and 24 tree species were identified for the region. During the survey soil samples were also collected and analysed and the r esults are incluged. Grasses such as Andropogon abyssin i cus , Cynodon dactyl on , Pennisetum Schimperi and Fennisetum glabrum were dominant in t he highland zone of Nekemte Awr aja. ayarrhenia hirta, Hyparrhenia rufa and Sporobolus natalensis Commonly occur in the medium a ltitude zone . Penni se t um Schimperi and Pennisetum g l abrum were also f r equently f ound in this zone. I n the l owl and zone of this region Hyparrhenia species s uch as ~arrhenia diplandra, Hyparrhen i a antistirio i des and Hyparrhenia Collina were large l y grown . In general, grasses of good grazing va lue were found in larger proporation in the highland zone . The proportion of l egumes in all of the grasslands s tudied was very low. Soils in this Awraja in general are strongly t o moderately acidic . Phosphorus in these soils is low t o very low , organic carbon and total nitrogen are medium to high. In Nekemte Awraja , mixed farming is practiced , but farmers are engaged more in the production of cereal crops for family subsistance. Livestock are raised for draft purpose and to provide money in case of emergency. In this region , fire is used as the only tool of pasture management system. Fodder conservation method for the dry s eason feed is virtually unknown. Cattle in this region mainly feed on natural pastures. 'Atela' (a residue from preparing 'tella' or 'araki ' ), teff straw, boiled barley and finger millet bread are given mainly t o oxen and milking cows as a supplimentary feed.
Serum Immunoglobulin Levels in Healthy Ethiopian School Children
(Addis Ababa University, 1982-06) Gebre- Mari am, Zinabu; Belehu, Ayele (PhD)
Serum conc ent r ations of immunoglobulins 19G, 19A and 19M in 258 healthy Et hiopian school children and 82 healthy adults residing in Addis Abeba were measured by the r adial immunodi ffusion t ec hnique . The r esults a r e presented as geometric mean values in mg/100 ml and as percent of the adult mean val ues. A statis- • tical analysis showed that the 19G a nd 19A concent r a tions at ages 8 and 7 r espectively were lower than the adult values . The infe renc e drawn from these r esults is that the 19G and 19A l evels do not r each the adult l e vel until a fter the age of 8 and 7 r espective l y . In c ontras t the 19M l evel was found to reach t he adult l e v e l before the age of 7 . No truly significant differences we r e observed in immunoglobulin l evels which could be attributed to se x , intestinal pa rasitic infection or socio-economic status . The mean values for IgG and 19M obtained from this study were found to be higher than the r e ferenc e values being used in the country a t the mome nt. I t is thus suggested that mean immunoglobulin conc entration val ues obtained from this s tudy be used as r e f e r ence values until furth e r study is made and more r e fined r e f e rence value s ar e set .
Rural Institutional Refort1s in Post-Revolution Ethiopia
(Addis Abeba university, 1982-07) Teka, Tegegne
Monopole Synchrotron Radiation and Electron-Monopole Scattering
(Addis Abeba university, 1983-06) Kassahun, Fesseha; V. Davydov, V.(PhD)
The power radiated per harmonic into a unit solid ang l e by a monopol e in uniform c ircul ar moti on i s computed . Then t he pol arizati on of monopole synchrotron radiation is investigated, and found to have certain distinct f eatures compared with that of electron synchrotron r adiation . This, we hope, may serve as a theoretical background i n the search fcr monopoles. Finally, the energy transferred from a scattered monopole to an e l ectron initially at rest i s determined
The Production and Iiiarketing of Oilseeds in Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 1984-06) Tamiru, Nigussie; Niokola, Tennssia (PhD)
Characteristics Influencing Usage of Modern Contraception
(Addis Ababa University, 1989-05) Kebede, Fekreab; Pickering, Joyce (PhD)
A case control study has been conducted in Tegulet and Bulga Awraja/district, Northern Shoa Administrative Region. The purpose of the study was to assess the various characteristics influencing modern contraception usage among users as compared to never-users and dropouts from family planning clinics. A total of 848 women ages 15 - 49 were interviewed. Among these, 41.4% were users while 42.1% and 16.5% were never-users and dropouts, respectively. In addition, husbands of 150 users , 115 never users and 49 dropouts were interviewed. Examinat i on of the various socio-demographic and reproductive characteristics showed significant differences in most of the variables between users and never-users. compared to never-users, users were older (mean age 27.1 years versus 25.9 years), more likely to be married (56% versus 47%) or divor ced (31% versus 25%), have a higher mean educational level (grade 5.3 versus 4.8), are more likely to work outside the h orne for cash payment (43% versus 28%), belong to the high income class (30% versus 17%) and have more chi l dren (2 live- children or more) (72% versus 45%). The vast maj ority of use r s (95%) s cor ed 3 and above in modern contrac ept i on knowledge whereas only 51% of the never-users scored so h igh . Ni nety per cent o f the users' husbands scored 3 and above on modern contraceptive knowledge while only 71 % o f never-us ers' scored this high. A higher approval of modern contraception and sex education to school children was s een among users' husbands (99% and 88%, respectively) as compared to never-users (77% and 74%, respectively) . Husband-wife communication on family planning was significantly higher among users (41%) than never-users (15%). Of the v ariables tested between users and dropouts very few signifi cant differences were demonstrated . Current users had u s ed modern contraception f o r a mean period of 23 . 5 months while dropouts had used it for a mean period of 17.9 months. A higher proportion of dropouts were found to be dissatisfied with the method refill interval compared to users (1 9% versus 10%).
The Occurrence and Determinants of Motor Vehicle Injuries in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa Univerisity, 1989-05) Dessie, Taddele; Larson, Charles(PhD)
This is a study of hospital treated motor vehicle injuries occurring in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Injuries are desc ribed in terms of their circumstance, type, and consequence . Drivers caus ing injury and their vehicles were compared with randomly selected control drivers in order to identify important driver and vehicle determinants of injury. The investigation was carried out between August 21, 1988 and November 12, 1988. During the twelve week period of study, 1050 hospital treated injuries were identified, for an overall incidence density of 279.4 per 100,000 person years. The mortality rate was 17.6 per 100,000 populati on per year and these fatalities accounted for an estimated 11,154 years of potential life l ost before age 65. The annua l vehi c le inflicted injury i ncidence density rate was 94 .6 in j u r i es pe r 1,000 cars registered. The majori t y ( 90 . 6%) of the injured we re pedestrians and 48.9% were between 11 and 30 years of age. The commonest body parts affected was multiple parts (43.6%), the extremities (26.5%) and the head (22.0%). The most frequent type of injur ies were l acerations (42.1.%) and fractures (14.9%). Driver characteristics plac ing an individual at increased risk of inflicting injury were mal e gender, under age 25 with less than 5 years driving e xperiences , a nd being pri vately employed with a taxi o r sma ll bu s d ri vers licence. Elevated risks were also f ound fo r the following motor vehicle v characteristics; buses, taxis, privat e ownership, and less than 5 years on the road. Based upon a multiple regression ana l ysis for the prediction cf motor vehicle injuries, the mos t important predictions in order of their strength of association were found tc be; motor vehicle age, drivers age, drivers gender and motor vehicle type. This study has documented the high motor vehicle morbidity and mortality rates occurring, male population of Addis Ababa. in particular, among the young ~ Several driver and vehicle determ inants of t his important public health problem have been identified,and recommendations have been given for the planning of future preventive programs, safegurding and educating the road user.
HIV Seropositivity and Related Factors Among Prisoners in Dire Dawa
(Addis Ababa Univerisity, 1989-05) Kebede, Yohannes; Pickering, Joyce(PhD)
Handwriting: A Comparative Study of the Synthetic And Global Methods
(Addis Ababa University, 1989-06) Temelso, Haile; Gamta, Tilahun (PhD)
The main objective of this study was to find out whether or not the Global Me t hod is more effective than the Synthetic ' Iethod in the t eaching of handwriting. To achi eve this , an experiment , for which hundred subjects were selected, was conducted for six weeks. Out of the hundred subjects , ninety- five children in four groups attended the experiment. Two of the groups formed the Control groups and the other two , the Study groups. A pretest was given to both the Control and Study groups to det ermine if they had a significant difference in writing performance. Statistical computations, however, showed tha t there was no significant difference between the t wo groups in writing cursively. After six weeks, a post-test was administered to both the Control and Study groups. A t - t est at 0.5 l evel of confidence was conducted to determine the significance difference between the means of the two groups and the results showed that the Study groups performed better than the Control groups. A conclusion was drawn that the Global Method is more effective than the Synthetic Method in the teaching of handwriting. On the basis of the findings , it is recommended that children in the elementary schools be taught handwriting through the Global Method and tha t speed of writing be considered and increased without affecting handwriting l egibility adversely affected
Knowledge, Attitude and Behavior (KAB) on mV/AIDS/STDs Among Workers in the lnformal Sector ill Addis Ababa
(Addis Ababa University, 1990-10) Abera, Zenabu; Habtemariam, Gebremaskal (PhD)
This study targeted to assess knowledge, attitude and behavior (KAB) on HIV/AlDS/STDs among workers in the informal sector in Addis Ababa. The study is based on the sample of J J 77 respondents. The eli gibi li ty criterion for the selection of respondents is based on the definition of workers in the Informal Sector as adapted from CSA and MOLSA survey. This work discusses the sampling procedure employed and the quality of data and examines the relationship between knowledge, attitude and behavior and selected background characteristics using univariate, bi-variate, and multipl-variate statistical techniques of data analysis. In multi- variate analysis, logistic regression model has been employed. The dependent variables were tested against the independent variables: age, marital status, place of work and sample area and sex were used as useful variable. The findings indicate that there is a positive relation between knowledge about HIV/AIDS/STDs and educational level. In self-reported STD infection, rel atively high rate was exhibited with increase in educational level. Education by itself doesn't guarantee for behavioral change. Males were more infected by STD than females . Attitude towards the disease was found to be lower for females than males. Misconception in the mode of AIDS transmission was higher in the study population. The study has found that the youth, working in the core business area and outside home need target oriented intervention. Finally, the study concluded by suggesting recommendations, general and specific, that may help to enhance awareness, attitudinal and behavioral change among the study population.
The Predictive Validity of Secretarial Tests Given By The Institute of Educational Research in Addis Ababa University
(Addis Ababa Univerisity, 1991-06) Chalchisa, Desalegne; Yimer, Mekonnen (PhD)
Infant and Early Childhood Mortality in Shewa Region: An Investigation into the Levels and Differentials
(Addis Ababa University, 1991-06) Hagos, Assefa; Shah, M.R. (PhD)
Available evidellce show that 1I0t ollly is child mortality ill Ethiopia amollg the highest ill the world, there are also cOllsiderable differences ill chalices of survival a11l0llg children of differellt populatioll groups. Nevertheless, the different aspects of child mortality are still far from sufficielltly documellted. In an effort to fill some of the gaps ill this respec4 this study sought firs4 to detennille levels alld trends of child mortality usillg a 5 percellt sample of womell from the 1984 census data for Shewa region. Because of its cultural alld climatic diversity,Shewa provides all ideal settingfor such all undertakillg. Secolld, attempt was also made to filld out the differences in child survival in a uni- alld bivariate study followed by a multivariate analysis of the detem.illants of child mortality. Using the Trussell procedure, illfant mortality rate (IMR) is estimated as high as 101 deaths per 1000 live births for Shewa region. The correspolldillg child (,lJ,) and ullder five mortality (,Q,) are 73 and 167 respectively. This means that one out of every six children in the region failS to reach his/her fifth birthday. Furthermore, no improvement in child mortality in the recent past is detected- In the 1970s it remained COllstallt fluctuating around 160 deaths per 1000 live births for both sexes. When attelltion is focussed all the differellces in child mortality among different population subgroups, the expected strong negative relationship between child mortality alld education of mother is evidellt. aile revealing aspect of this study is the prevalence of strong regional difference in child mortality in Shewa region. Thus, the illcidellce of child death is much more frequent ill the three south em Awrajas of Haikoch-Butajiru, Kembata-Hadiya and Chebo-Gurage than in the central Awrajas of Menageshu, Selale alld Tegulet-Bulga. Moreover, child survival advantages of the Amara ethllic group over that of the Gurage, Christialls over Moslems alld the currently married women over other marriage categories are observedIt emerged from the study that acquirillg more pertillellt data, expalldillg educatiollal opportunity for womell, redressillg the regiollal imbalance ill child mortality will go a IOllg way ill reducillg child mortality ill this country
Migrant -- Non-Migrant Fertility Differentials: The Case of Addis Abeba
(Addis Ababa University, 1991-06) Kederalah Idds; Y., K. (PhD)
In the study of population not only is the size important but also the rate of growth and the dynamics of its change. This is more so in developing countries with their high population growth rate and the much higher urban and primate city growth. Addis Ababa has been reported to be growing at around 5 per cent per year and the facilities, amenities, infrastructures, etc. have not been able to accommodate this growth. Planners and policy makers have been concerned about this and demographers have a role to play in distinguishing the factors behind this high growth. Using a multi-stage stratified sampling procedure a total of 1000 households were selected from 50 Kebeles in Addis Ababa and a total of 1133 respondents were interviewed for the present study. In each of the households selected into the sample, each eligible respondent (both migrant and non-migrant ever married women aged 15- 49) was asked a range of questions covering her marital, pre and post migration history as well as on related socio-economic status history. The analysis indicated that, at macro level there is not much difference in the fertility performance of migrants and non-migrants in Addis Ababa. This pattern continued even when we categorized them into different socio-economic and demographic variables; like economic activity status, ethnicity, education, age at first marriage, breastfeeding durations and contraceptive useThe micro level analysis attempted to identify the specific mechanisms through which the said socio-economic variables affected fertility, by controlling for age at marriage, breastfeeding duration and contraceptive use. Whereas the migrant - nonmigrant differential was virtually not in the expected direction, controlling for the proximate determinants, the higher migrant than non-migrant fertility was observed. Among the former, fertility was apparently higher among those of rural origin than their urban counterparts. In the area of mortality also, we observed that, migration tends to affect positively the survival of the children of migrants.
Fertility Behaviour of Elites and Their Perception of the Population Problem in Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 1991-06) Zewoldi, Yacob; Chaudhury, R. (PhD)
The rapid population growth in Ethiopia (3 percent per year) in recent years poses serious difficulties in the efforts to achieve economic and social development. To solve this problem, there is a need for pertinent information on knowledge, practice and attitudes of various segments of the population with respect to fertility behaviour and family planning. There is also a need to understand their perception and views regarding the JXlPulation growth at the national level, their opinions on the interaction of JXlPulation and environmental deterioration, and their attitude towards the introduction of population and family life education. Such information can indicate focus areas for a population JXllicy and also contribute to its success. This is an exploratory study which investigated the family planning knowledge, practice and attitudes of Ethiopian elites in Addis Ababa, their perception of the JXlpulation growth and environment, and their attitude towards the introduction of JXlPulation and family life education in the high school curricula of the country. The elite play an imJXlrtant role, in spite of their small numbers, in moulding public opinion on every aspect of life including reproductive life and they act as a role-model for other groups. The elite sub-groups covered in the study were artists, high school teachers, lawyers, medical doctors, Orthodox-Christian and Muslim religious leaders, senior government officials, university lecturers and a women's group. The thesis discusses the target JXlpulation, the survey methodology and problems encountered in the field. Descriptive analysis was used to discuss knowledge, practice and attitude towards family planning, and the elites' perception of the population problem in the country. Multivariate analysis was applied for examining differentials in mean age at marriage of women and the mean achieved and desired fertility levels among the elite sub-groups. The analysis followed two approaches. The first one was the investigation of differentials in the attitudes towards and practices of family planning and other JXlpulation related issues by socio-economic and demographic background characteristics. The second approach investigated these differentials within and between elite sub-groups.
An Assessment of Teachers' Performances in Curriculum Implementation Illubabor Senior Secondary Schools in Focus
(Addis Ababa University, 1991-06) Dinka, Hailu; Desta, Azeb(PhD)
h MaNA/June 1990, a stu4 was carrie. out U I1ltl~a~.r Seaior Sece •• ~ Scaools to assess tae perror~saees .r teacaers .r tae acadeJlic subjects u curricula illple.e.tati •• ;· Tae ~asie questions whica tae s~ atteaptea to 8llSWer were: _ (i) Do teacaers select, structure, a. reorc8Jlis. tao c.o.teats .r tae suijects tae7 teaca t. rac1litate tae pla.p1. c aat enclisio •• r illstructio.? (ll) Do all teacaers ' eQl~ &Jpropriate aetao.s, teckaiques, an. proeeures i. teacAUc? (iii) Do teacaers saow sa atte~t to overcometae saortace or teac~.le8rPiac .aterials? (iv) Do teacaers use coa.uait,y res. uri es t. 'ta. aaveatace .or iastructio.? aU. (v) D. teacaers prenb rer I coaeeras .r tae learRers~ ORe auaare. thri~ tour teacaers rro. a saaple or tAree scaools participatea 1a tae study. Tllrougll tao use .r questioaaire, oiservations, ana l.terviews, .ata were collect .. rroa teacaers. Directors · and stu.eats were also i.temew .... Tae .ata collecte4 were anal7zea usiae peree.taces, avera&es, Clrl-S~uare Ustribution, and iDterpretatiollS ia relatio. t. li terature in the field of curriculua and. instrueti... h particular, II J oAnson 's model or eurriculua taeeq· was takea as a treae or reference. . . . - Major findings of the stuq were (i) Teacaers elllla~e. (selecte., structured, and reorc8Jlize.) tae co.te.ts .r tae SUBjects tae7 teach to facilitate tae planai~ an. execusion of instructio., (ii) Too many teacaers were unconceraea aiout tae sllortSf)e of illstructional lIIaterials i. the suijects tae7 teaca, (iii) Teacaers tended to demonstrate a less frequent use of appropriate procedures ani teclmiques in teacllinc sat .0 significaat Ufference was observe .. letween all teacaers ia tns regart, (iv) ~ew teachers used tae coaauni~ tor auea ot tileir teacnllg, ant (v) Teachers assiste" tae learaers oaly tllrougll inforaal uvice and encourageaents. On tae lasis of the findin,s it was reco_eDdea to (i) Orgaaize workshops and seminars for teacaers to aelr the •• aster the methods and tecAniques of teaclliwc, (ii) Atnse teacaers to produce their own teachin~ aids, (iii) Encourage teachers to use community resoruces, ,iv) Moiilize tae scaool aad tae surrounding cOlllllunity tor tae upkeepiac ut aaintenaace of tae scaool, and (v) Make coatiaious tollow ups ot teacaers

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