Veterinary Public Health

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A Retrospective Study Of Dogs Rabies, Vaccination Coverage And Challenges In Addis Ababa
(Addis Abeba University, 2024) Kirubel Befekadu; Dr. Biruhtesfa Asrade; Dr. Zerihun Assefa
A retrospective and cross-sectional study about the incidence of rabies and the coverage and barriers of rabies vaccination was conducted in Addis Ababa city from October 2023 to April 2024. The objective of this study was to assess the general condition of rabies and its vaccination coverage within Addis Ababa. Data was collected through surveys of dog owners and interviews with veterinarians in various sub-cities across Addis Ababa. Additionally, retrospective analysis of dog bite records from the Ethiopian Public Health Institute and canine vaccination data (2020- 2023) from the Farmers and Urban Agriculture Development Commission were employed. Out of the 206 dog owners who participated in the survey, the majority (66.5%) indicated that their dogs were fully vaccinated. Some of the significant barriers for dog vaccination acknowledged by respondents were poor knowledge of rabies, unrestricted dog movement, and lack of mass vaccination campaign. Interviewed veterinary professionals identified lack of equipment, coordination with other agencies and inadequate long-term planning as the major barriers for vaccination coverage. In Addis Ababa, 3,123 individuals were reported to be bitten by a suspected dog from 2019 to 2023 and overall incidence rate was found to be 12.45. In the same period 92.7% of the victims were reported to have received post-exposure prophylaxis. According to records from the Farmers and Urban Agriculture Development Commission, a total of 96,319 dogs received rabies vaccination in Addis Ababa during the period spanning from 2020 to 2023. In the present study, there was a significant increase in the number of human cases of dog bites receiving post-exposure anti-rabies vaccination. Additionally, this research revealed a lack of awareness regarding rabies vaccination, particularly notable in sub-cities like Arada and Lemi Kura. This study recommends for the scaling-up of periodic mass vaccination campaigns for dogs, coupled with one health initiatives and targeted restrictions on canine movement, as a comprehensive strategy for rabies control.
AEROBIC BACTERIAL ISOLATES, INCIDENCE RATE AND THE ASSOCIATED RISK FACTORS OF HEIFER MASTITIS IN AND AROUND DEBRE-LIBANOS WOREDA, NORTH SHOWA, OROMIA, ETHIOPIA
(2014-06) DANIEL, FISSEHA; Dr. Biruk Tesfaye, Dr. Tesfaye Sisay
Mastitis is a major disease in dairy cattle of Ethiopia. The objectives of this study were to identify aerobic bacterial pathogens, estimate the incidence of mastitis, identify the associated risk factors and assess drug resistance patterns of bacterial isolates in heifers mastitis. The study was conducted for eight months and a total of 124 quarters were examined to detect clinical mastitis and subclinical mastitis by udder physical examinations and the California mastitis test (CMT) respectively. California mastitis test positive milk samples were used to isolate and identify bacteria. The study revealed that the incidence rate of mastitis per gland month at risk was 39.45%. The incidence of mastitis was found to be affected by management system, udder hygiene, dry cow therapy and lactation stage (p < 0.05). The percentage of CMT positive glands that remained positive after a month and the percentage of CMT negative glands that remained negative after a month were 57.14% and 79.91% respectively. Staphylococcus aureus (25.11%), Coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) [14.70%] and Streptococcus species (14.70%) were the predominant bacteria. In the present study, out of eight in vitro antimicrobials used; gentamycine (0%), kenamycin (0%), ampicillin (62%), penicillin G (89%), chloramphinicol (8%), Cefoxitin (16%), tetracycline (84%) and trimethoprim (8%), showed resistance to heifer mastitis pathogens. Gentamycine and chloramphinicol were the most effective antibiotics among all the tested ones. Finally due to the high resistance level detected in the study, it was believed that it is necessary to set up antimicrobial resistance surveillance programmes in the country. It was also concluded that the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus warrants serious attention, the application of antibacterial agents earlier before calving may help to reduce the incidence of mastitis during the early lactation period.
An In-Depth Assessment of Knowledge, Attitude and Practices about Transmission of Zoonoses, Food Safety, Antimicrobial Resistance and the Detection of E. coli O 157:H7 along the Meat Value Chain in Ethiopia: One Health approach
(Addis Ababa University, 2023) Fufa Abunna; Prof. Bekele Megersa
Food-borne diseases associated with zoonotic pathogens can be transmitted to humans primarily, but not exclusively through animal source foods. Antimicrobial resistance in the food chain is also currently a subject of a major concern globally. The excessive use or rather misuse of antimicrobials coupled with a poor hygiene in the food production chain has led to a rise of drug resistant bacteria, commonly transmitted through food chain. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken by using a structured pretested questionnaire to investigate the level of knowledge, attitude and practices towards the transmission of Zoonoses among farmers in Ada‘a district, food safety among meat handlers of Bishoftu city and antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among 10 public University students in Ethiopia. Another study was also carried out to detect E. coli O157: H7 along the meat value chain in abattoirs and retail meat shops and of Bishoftu city and to assess the susceptibility profile of the isolates against 13 antibiotics using a standard disk diffusion method. Logistic regression was used to assess the associations between socio-demographic characteristics and knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Accordingly, farmers with secondary school or above education background (OR= 6.8, CI=2.4 - 18.0, p <0.05), aged between 41 and 50 years (OR=3.0, 95% CI: 1.2–7.2, p<0.05), and good knowledge (OR=2.1, CI=1.3 - 3.5, p <0.05), and positive attitude (OR=7.8, CI=4.7 - 12.9, p <0.01) had better practices that reduce the risk of exposure to zoonotic infections than their counterparts. Most meat handlers had a good knowledge level, a positive attitude and poor food safety practices. In multivariable models, good knowledge was significantly (p<0.05) associated with older age; positive attitudes were associated with lower educational attainment and good knowledge; and good practices were associated with working experience in an abattoir and having received training on food safety. Students' birthplace was found to be significantly (p <0.01) associated with knowledge of students on AMU and AMR. Students with good knowledge had 3.9 times more positive attitudes than those with poor knowledge (OR = 3.9, CI = 3.0 -5.2, p < 0.01). Students from Veterinary medicine had 1.6 times better attitude than students from Helath Science and Non-Helath Science (OR = 1.6, CI=1.2- 2.1, p < 0.05). The prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 was found to be 3.6%. There was a significant difference in the occurrences of the pathogen among the sources of samples (p<0.05). The antimicrobial susceptibility test revealed that the isolates were found to be resistant to three commonly used drugs, tetracycline (100%), erythromycin (92.8%), and ampicillin (64.3%). However, all isolates were susceptible to azithromycin, cefotaxime, and chloramphenicol. However, 85.8% of the isolates were found to be resistant to three or more classes of antimicrobials. In conclusion, this study revealed knowledge gaps, a low level of the desired attitude, and high-risk behavioral practices among farmers about the transmsioon of Zoonoses. The study revealed that there is an inadequate food safety practice among meat handlers; and E. coli O157:H7 was detected in abattoirs and butcher shops. Furtheromeore, there were critical gaps of knowledge, attitudes and practices among University students about antimicrobial usage and antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, the need for awareness creation about zoonotic disease transmission among farmers, regular hands-on training and enforcement of general and personal hygiene among meat handlers is recommended. Moreover, interventions to raise awareness about AMU and AMR should also target students majoring in fields other than health sciences.
Anthelmintic utilization practices in Ada’a district and in vitro anthelmintics efficacy study against Haemonchus.contortus and Trichostrongylus.columbriformis in Oromia, Ethiopia
(2020-06) Gebeyehu Alkadir; Dr. Fufa Dawo
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an infectious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals and it remains an economically important disease globally. It has become the number one livestock disease problem in Ethiopia causing cattle and cattle products export restriction. Antigen and gene detections of FMDV from outbreak cases in Borena zone of Oromia region were conducted using a cross-sectional study design. Purposive sampling was used in three kebeles: Arbore, Buyo and Dasogore, of Gomole district of the zone where outbreak had occurred. Clinical examination was performed on FMD suspected cattle and epithelial and swab sample was collected from representative animals. A total of 29 samples were collected and tested by real time RT-PCR for gene detection and sandwich ELISA for antigen typing. The rRT-PCR test result showed that 41.38% (12/29) sample were positive for FMDV. 10 rRT-PCR positive samples were subjected to antigen detection ELISA for serotyping and four serotypes of FMDV were detected; 3(60%) were serotype O, 1(20%) was mixed infection (serotype A and O) and 1(20%) was also mixed infection (SAT1 and SAT2). In addition, all the collected samples were subjected to virus isolation using baby hamster kidney day 21 (BHK-21) cells and 24.14% (7/29) showed cytopathic effect. Based on the evidence from antigen and molecular detections, four serotypes (A, O, SAT1, and SAT2) of FMD virus were circulating in the area causing production losses and mortality. Therefore, regular monitoring of the circulating virus and serotyping should be implemented as a base for selection of matching vaccine to institute effective control strategy in the area.
Antibiogram study of Salmonella and Escherichia coli isolates and assessment of KAP of poultry producers in conventional poultry farms in Hossana town, central Ethiopia
(Addis Abeba University, 2024) Habtamu Endale; Debela Abdeta; Mesfin Mathewos; Saliman Aliye; Adane Haile
Antimicrobial resistance is a serious health threat to creatures that depend on antimicrobials for the prevention and relief of infections. Foodborne Salmonella and Esherchia coli O157:H7 are critical causes of antimicrobial resistance associated morbidity and mortality. Fast growing poultry production along with antimicrobial misuse is a critical hotspot for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. A cross-sectional study aimed at investigating the antimicrobial resistance pattern of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 by disc diffusion method and assessment of KAP of poultry producers was executed in conventional poultry farms in Hossana Town, Central Ethiopia from October 2023 to May 2024. Up on bacteriological, biochemical and serological tests, 27 Salmonella and 20 E. coli were isolated and identified from a total of 228 cloacal swabs and postmortem samples. In disc diffusion test, all Salmonella and E. coli isolates were resistant to tested antimicrobial agents. Salmonella was resistant to ampicillin (100%), sulfamethoxazole and cefoxitin (85.1%), tetracycline (77.8%), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (74.1%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (66.6%), ceftriaxone and streptomycin (55.6%), ciprofloxacin (51.9%), ampicillin/sulbactam (48.1%), trimethoprim (44.4%) and cefotaxime (40.7%). It showed high susceptibility to meropenem (81.48 %), gentamicin (66.67%), chloramphenicol (81.48%) and azithromycin (81.48%). E. coli O157:H7 was resistant to ampicillin (100%), cefotaxime and tetracycline (90.00%), cefoxitin and trimethoprim (70.00%), sulfamethoxazole (65.00%), amoxicillin clavulanic acid and ceftriaxone (55.0%) and ampicillin/sulbactam (50.00%). It was highly susceptible to azithromycin 90.00%, gentamicin (75.00%), chloramphenicol (60.00%), ciprofloxacin (55.00%) and meropenem (50.00%). All Salmonella and 80.00% of E. coli exhibited MDR. A lower portion, 22.20%, 19.44% and 25.00% of the poultry producers have good knowledge, attitude and practice on AMU and AMR, respectively. Poultry farms in the study site were found crucial hotspots for AMR Salmonella and E. coli and the low KAP levels of the poultry producers further exacerbate antimicrobial misuse and AMR spread. Monitoring antimicrobial dispensing, awareness of stakeholders on AMR prevention, and improving poultry producers' KAP on antimicrobial use and resistance are paramount to tackling this global problem.
Antibiotic Use and Antibiotic Resistance of Salmonella Species in Different Poultry Farms in Selected Districts of East Shewa Zone, Oromia Regional State, Central Ethiopia
(2021-06) Mezene, Woyessa; Prof. Gezahegn Mamo, Dr Balako Gumi
Antibiotics are limited resources. The more antibiotics are used today, the lesser it is likely they will still be effective in the future. Antibiotic resistance is considered one of the major threats to the world’s health as antibiotic resistant infections are increasing in humans, animals and the environment from time to time. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics is a primary contributor for the development of antibiotic resistance. The World Health Organization estimates that in the past decade the number of deaths attributed to antibiotic resistant bacteria exceeded the combined number of deaths due to influenza, human immunodeficiency virus and traffic accidents. Salmonella is the major cause of foodborne zoonotic bacterial infections worldwide and poultry is a major source of this zoonotic infection. Drug resistant Salmonella, such as quinolone and the higher generation cephalosporin resistant strains are regarded by World Health Organization as a critically important highest priority pathogen. Hence, a cross sectional study was conducted from September, 2017 to January, 2021 to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella species isolated from poultry and to evaluate a prudent use of antibiotics in intensive and semi-intensive commercial and backyard poultry farms in a selected districts (Ada’a, Lome, Akaki and Adama) of East Shewa zone of Oromia regional state, central Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select districts, peasant association and poultry farms. A total of 780 samples (500 chicken fecal, 153 egg, 100 chicken meat and 27 hand swab from poultry farm workers) were collected for Salmonella isolation and identification. Three hundred eighty eight individuals (n=388) were included in the study for the assessment of prudent use of antibiotics using structured questionnaire surveys. Based on microbial isolation and identification, the prevalence of Salmonella was 18.4% (95% CI=14.6-21.3) in the fecal samples, 14.8% (95% CI=1.5-28.5) in the hand swabs of poultry farm workers, 4.5% (95% CI=1.2-7.7) of eggs and 6% (95% CI=1.3-10.7) of meat samples with the overall prevalence of 13.97% (95% CI=11.6-16.4). xiv The highest prevalence of salmonella infection was observed in intensive production system (16.9%) and the lowest was found in backyard scavenging system (7.4%). One of the serious zoonotic strains (S. typhmurium) was recorded as a dominant serovar (69.7%) followed by S. Saintpaul (18.2%), S. Kentucky (6%), S. Newport (3%) and S. Anatum (3%) during this study. Risk factors such as poultry production system (P=0.006), production type (P=0.001), breed of chicken (P=0.005) and sample type (P=0.001) were significantly associated with Salmonella prevalence. A total of 37 Salmonella isolates were tested for their resistance against 15 antibiotics using disc diffusion method. Majority of the isolates (64.86%) were resistant or intermediately resistant to at least one antibiotic. The prevalence of resistance was high to chloramphenicol (62.2%), tetracycline (59.5%), ampicillin (54.1%) and streptomycin (51.4%). More than half of the isolates (56.8%) were multidrug resistant. The widespread occurrence of drug resistant Salmonella in poultry farms clearly demonstrated that, there is lack of awareness about prudent use of antibiotics, which highly contributed to the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria. All farms used one or more antibiotics and administered them mainly through feed/water. Tetracycline (100%) and sulfadiazine + trimethoprim (94.1%), fluroquinolones (41.5%) and cloxacillin + ampicillin (29.1%) were the most frequently used antibiotics. Antibiotics were used for disease treatment (100%), for disease prevention (56%) and /or for growth promotion (32.2%). Veterinary pharmacies (100%), veterinary clinic (51.0%), human pharmacies (26.8%) and illegal open market (16.2%) were the sources of antibiotics for the poultry producers. Sixty two percent of the farms obtained antibiotics through prescription from veterinarian and the rest were as self-prescription (32.2%) or as recommended by friends with prior experience (11.9%). Only 37.9% of the prescribed antibiotics administered by veterinary professional while majority of the farms administered antibiotics by themselves, based on the drug labels or as directed by a prescriber or pharmacist. Antibiotic stewardship programs such as removing the use of antibiotics for growth promotion, controlling illegal open market access as well as increasing veterinary and diagnostic services will help to mitigate antibiotic resistance. Measures to control of Salmonella infections in poultry are needed to reduce foodborne infections in humans.
ANTIGEN DETECTION AND MOLECULAR CHARACTERIZATION OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE VIRUS FROM OUTBREAK CASES IN ETHIOPIA
(2019-06) Shimels, Tikuye; Dr. Fufa Dawo , Dr. Daniel Gizaw
Foot and mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hooved animals with significant economic impact. Outbreak investigation was conducted in Tigray, Oromia and SNNPs regional states of Ethiopia from September 2018 to May 2019. Purposive sampling was conducted in the respective districts and kebeles where the outbreaks occurred. A total of 215 animals were examined for the presence of typical clinical signs, 55 animals (25.58%) showed clinical signs and lesions suggestive of FMD. Totally 55 epithelial tissues and 8 oral swab samples were collected from suspected cases and submitted to the NAHDIC, Sebeta, Ethiopia for virus isolation, serotype identification and molecular characterization. Culture positive FMDV isolates were sent to WRLFMD, Pirbright, UK for sequencing. Of the 63 collected samples, 53 samples (84.13%) were positive for the FMDV genome by rRT-PCR with Ct values ranging from 15.06 to 31.19. Out of 34 cultured samples, 76.47% (n = 26) exhibited cytopathic effect in BHK-21 cell and the viruses were isolated. In the current study, serotypes of O (53.85%) and A (46.15%) were identified by antigen detection ELISA. Phylogenetic analysis of VP1 sequences from these viruses were used to determine the relationships from Ethiopia and other viruses retrieved from GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 nucleotide sequences showed that the type O viruses belonged to the EA-3 and EA-4 topotypes. Serotype A isolates belonged to genotype IV of African topotype. Amino acid substitutions were observed at critical residues of antigenic sites of serotype O at position 45 and 48 of VP1. Amino acid variations also identified in the main antigenic sites between the vaccine strain and field isolates of FMDV serotype A at positions 45, 140, 141, 143, 149 and 157. Similarly a total of 12.68% and 15.96% amino acid variations were observed in serotype O and A, respectively, in different sites of the VP1 gene with reference to the vaccine strain of the country. Therefore, regular investigation of FMD outbreaks to have more detailed information about the serotypes and topotypes circulating in Ethiopia is important for development of effective vaccine for the controlling of the disease.
ANTIMICROBIAL AND BACTERIA CULTIVATIVE VALUE OF MORINGA OLIFERA LEAF EXTRACT IN SELECTED ANIMAL PATHOGENS
(2014-06) ADDISU, DEMEKE; Dr. Biruk Tesfaye, Dr. Tesfaye Sisay; Dr.BedasoMamo
The research was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial effect of various forms of the leaf extracts (Moringa oleifera) on the growth of four selected gram-positive and negative bacteria and to evaluate the bacterial cultivated value of the extract.The antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of Moringa oleifera Lam., was determined in vitro, using disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determined against selected animal pathogenic bacteria. M. oleiferaleave extract has been found to possess antimicrobial properties. In this work, four extraction solvents were used, i.e. aqueous extraction, fresh leave juice, ethanol and methanol. The methanol extract method of fresh and dried leaves displayed potential broad spectrum activity against all the tested organisms whereas the fresh leave juice extract which didn’t have any inhibitory effect were evaluated for its bacterial cultivated value and it was obtained that the power form of this extract was optimal environment for the growth of both gram positive and gram negative selected bacteria. The antimicrobial assay showed that the zones of inhibition produced using disc diffusion method ranged 3mm to 22mm for the four extraction methods with the highest value of 22mm obtained with ethanol extraction. The zones of inhibition for fresh ethanol extract was 4 to 22 mm, methanol extract from fresh leaf was 8 to 20 mm, and hot and cold water extract of fresh and dried leaves was 8 to 9,8 to 10,3 to 4 and 3 to 5 mm respectively. The MIC values were conducted for the different form of extracts against the tested bacterial pathogens and the highest concentration was recorded 25mg/ml for S.auerus while it was 30 mg/ml for S.fecalis. The bacterial cultivated value of M.oleifera powder extract of fresh leaf juice was determined by cultivating the four tested pathogens on the culture medium which was prepared from the plant extract with the proper concentration of agar powder in sterile distilled water and it was revealed that all the pathogens were successfully grown on it. The consequences of this investigation suggest that the extracts and juice of M.oleifera Lam. can be used to discover antibacterial agent for developing new pharmaceuticals to control animal pathogenic bacteria responsible for severe illness.
ANTIMICROBIAL USE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY PROFILE OF SELECTED ZOONOTIC PATHOGEN IN DAIRY FARM AND THEIR PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATION IN ADAMA AND MODJO, ETHIOPIA
(2019-06) Munera, Ahmednur; Dr. Fanta Desissa, Mr. Takele Beyene
A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2018 to May 2019 in Adama and Modjo. The main objectives of the study were to isolate and identify selected zoonotic pathogens from dairy cattle, to assess practical usage of drugs and to determine the in vitro antimicrobial resistance profiles of the isolates. Structured questionnaire was designed and administered to dairy farm owners and dairy food consumers to assess their consumption behavior and antibiotics usage. A total of 607 samples consisting of fresh cow milk, fecal sample, nasal swab, pooled milkers’ hand swabs, pooled floor swabs and tank milk samples were collected from 20 dairy farms. The samples were examined for the presence of selected zoonotic pathogens. Total of 396 samples were analyzed for S. aureus and 15.7% (62) were positive. Total of 396 samples were analyzed for E. coli and 7.6% (30) were positive. From 271of the total analyzed samples for Salmonella 4.8% (13) were positive. A total of 62 S. aureus, 30 E. coli and 13 Salmonella isolates were observed resistant to at least one or more antimicrobials tested. Penicillin, Methicillin and Sulphametoxazole trimethoprim were drugs to which a large proportion of isolated S. aureus were (100%to90%) highly resistant. From 30 tested E. coli show resistance to Tetracycline (83%) and Vancomycin (80%). The resistances of Salmonella were 69% to Nalidxic Acid and 54% to Vancomycin. Multiple drug resistance was detected in high (98.4%) for S. aureus, (56.7%) for E. coli and (53.9%) for Salmonella. High proportion of the current misuses of drugs and occurrence of resistance isolates to drugs in the dairy farms alerts concern for animal and public health as these drugs is used widely for treatment and prophylaxis in animals and humans.
Assessment of Bacteriological Quality of Fish and Fish Products and Knowledge Attitude and Practice of Fish Handlers in Batu and Koka, Oromia, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023) Mikias Jufar; Prof. Bekele Megersa; Dr Marshet Adugna; Assist. Prof. Haile Alemayehu
Fish and fishery product contribute to 17% of the global animal protein intake, but its contamination can cause food borne infections and constitute a risk to the public health. Across sectional study design was conducted comprising of field survey and laboratory analysis of fish samples from December 2022 to June 2023 in Koka and Batu towns. The aim of the study was to determine the bacterial load, detect common food borne pathogenic bacteria as well as to assess food safety knowledge, attitude and hygienic practices of fish and fish products. A total of 130 fish products were collected randomly from cooked (n= 20), frozen (n= 15), and fresh fish fillets (n= 65) as well as swab samples from hands, knife and filleting table (n=30). All collected samples were transported and analyzed at Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology Medical Microbiology laboratory of Addis Ababa University. Salmonella, E. coli, and S. aureus were detected by selective media and biochemical tests. Total viable bacterial count was assessed by using Plate Count Agar, whereas total Coliform count was determined by Violet Red Bile agar. The data were analyzed using STATA version 14 and descriptive statistics, Chi squared and one way ANOVA were employed to generate required information. The overall prevalence of E. coli, S. aureus and Salmonella were 32.31%, 16.9% and 3.1% respectively. The mean of TPC from cooked, frozen and fresh fillets were 4.54, 5.91 and 7.55 log cfu/g respectively. The mean of TCC from cooked, frozen and fresh fillet were 3.67, 5.02 and 6.1 logcfu/g respectively. The mean of TPC and TCC showed above center for food safety standard level. The survey study revealed that 23.75%, 38.75%, and 51.25% of respondents had poor knowledge, negative attitudes, and poor hygienic practices of fish and fish products respectively.Similarly62.5% and 68.75% of participants had negative attitudes regarding consumption of raw and inadequately cooked fish, implying the potential health risk to consumers. Generally, the study showed detection of pathogenic bacteria and unacceptable bacterial load with unhygienic handling and processing of fish. Education and awareness creation regarding hygienic practice and risk of food borne disease is essential.
ASSESSMENT OF CONTAMINATION OF MILK WITH STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS, MILK CONSUMPTION HABIT AND HANDLING PRACTICES: IMPLICATION FOR PUBIC HEALTH IN SEBETA, CENTRAL ETHIOPIA
(2015-06) Yodit, Ayele; Dr. Bedaso Mammo, Dr. Ashenafi Feyisa; Dr. Fanta Desissa
A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2014 to April 2015 to assess the contamination of milk with Staphylococcus aureus, milk consumption habit and handling practices using microbiological technique and questionnaire survey in Sebeta town, central Ethiopia. Simple random sampling and purposive sampling technique were used to generate the desired data. The study involved 209 individual cow milk, 27 swab from milking buckets and 25 swab from hands of milkers, 20 milk samples from tank of milk collection centers, 10 pasteurized milk from processing plant and 23 farm owners, 19 milk collectors, 50 consumers, 17 hotel/cafeteria workers and 1 milk processing staff member were included. Bacteriological culture and antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed following the recommended standard procedures. The study revealed a prevalence of 19.6% (95%CI: 14.5-25.6) at farm milk and contamination of 80% of Staphylococcus aureus at collection centers, and there was statistically significant variation between them with higher contamination at milk collection centers (χ²=35.599, df=1, p=0.000). There was also significant variation in the proportion of Staphylococcus aureus among collection centers (χ²= 60.000, df=3 p=0.000). The contamination of milker's hand and milking bucket with Staphylococcus aureus were 32% and 11.1%, respectively. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from none of the pasteurized milk samples. The isolates were found to be resistant to cefoxitine (100%), penicillin G (98.5%), and streptomycin (77.9%). 35% of the farmers were consume raw milk, all didn't wash their hands using antiseptic solutions, never washed cow teats/udder and all had no knowledge of Staphylococcal food poisoning. In conclusion, the study showed poor handling practices of milk, raw milk consumption habit, resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to commonly used antibiotics and lack of awareness about staphylococcal food poisoning implicating for public health issue. Eventually, raising awareness on milk handling practices, milk borne staphylococcal poisoning and further study to estimate the risk of staphylococcal poising following consumption of milk contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus at each milk value chain in the study area were recommended.
Assessment of Farm Management Practices, Antimicrobial Usage, Poultry Health and Welfare: Isolation and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of E. Coli in Poultry Farms at the Starter Phase In Bishoftu, Ethiopia
(Addis Abeba University, 2024) Kebene Temesgen; Hika Waktole
In view of the expanding trend of poultry sector, the starter phase of poultry production requires effective management, health, welfare and judicious antimicrobial usage. Suboptimal practices during the starter phase can result in reduced productivity and increased spread of disease. A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2023 to May 2024 with the targeted objectives of assessing farm management practices, poultry health and welfare, antimicrobial usage and susceptibility profile of E. coli in poultry farms during the starter phase in Bishoftu town. Methodologically, the study employed questionnaire surveys and bacteriological isolation of E. coli. The questionnaire survey revealed that 69%, 50%, 70%, 42% and 65% of respondents had good management practices in terms of housing and brooding, chick quality and procurement, health and biosecurity, welfare and antimicrobial usage, respectively. The study's findings indicated several managemental practices were not properly addressed. The study found that farmers' educational level, experience and role significantly (p<0.05) impact on the management of housing and brooding, as well as maintenance of health and biosecurity and rational use of antimicrobials. Education also significantly influenced (χ2=28.6; p=0.000) the promotion of chicken welfare within the farms. Risk factors like breed also impact chick quality and procurement management and maintenance of health and biosecurity (p<0.05). Differences in farm size also played a significant (p<0.05) influence in maintaining health and biosecurity, promoting animal welfare and ensuring the rational use of antimicrobials. The present study disclosed that 52.7% (116/220) isolation of E. coli from cloacal swabs. Further, Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed all isolates showed 100% resistance to oxacillin and penicillin, 88% to vancomycin, 64% to oxytetracycline, 48% to amoxicillin, 32% to sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim. To promote effective management of poultry farms, particularly during the starter phase targeted interventions are recommended for effective poultry farm management, focusing on promoting poultry health, and welfare and judicious use of antimicrobials for sustainable farming practices
Assessment of Hygienic Milk Production and Prevalence of Mastitis in Dairy Cow in Jikawo Woreda of Nuer Zone, Gambella Region, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababauniversity, 2014-06) Deng, Yien; Tamir, Berhan (Professor)
A cross sectional study was conducted in Jikawo Woreda of Nuer Zone, Gambella Regional State in Southwest Ethiopia, with the objective of assessing hygienic milk production practices, prevalence of mastitis and associated risk factors from December 2013 to April 2014. Data were collected through administering semi-structured questionnaire, group discussion and conducting California Mastitis screening test across the randomly selected households of the three purposively selected kebeles in the Woreda. The questionnaire was administered to 145 households. The results showed that 75.2% (109) of interviewed households were females while the remaining were males who were involved in hygienic milk production responses. Washing udder was not practiced by 95.17% (138) of the households in the area. Only 4.83% (7) practiced washing udder before milking only after the death of the calf. About 48.3% (70) of the households use cold water to clean milk handling equipments. The California Mastitis Screening Test was performed on 121 lactating dairy cows of these; about 60.33% (73) were showed mastitis cases. The prevalence of clinical and subclinical mastitis was found to be 11.57% (14) and 48.76% (59), respectively. Test of quarter level prevalence of mastitis was done on 484 quarters and it was found that 9.32% (45) and 37.89% (183) of the quarters had clinical and subclinical cases, respectively. The quarter level prevalence of clinical and sub clinical mastitis from the highest to lowest rate of infection was left front teats (LF) 53.72% (65), right rear teats (RR) 50.00% (60), left rear teats (LR) 45.56% (55) and right front teats (RF) 39.65% (48). Those animals which were affected with tick infestation (χ2 =11.14, p< 0.003),with teat injury (χ2 =7.14, P<0.008) and with history of mastitis (P<0.003, χ2=8.62) were significantly affected with mastitis compared to their counter parts. The occurrence of mastitis based on age, stage of lactation and parity was significantly higher in adult cow (6-9yrs) (χ2 =7.87, P<0.020), in mid (5-7month) lactation (χ2 =6.41, P<0.041), and in cow with moderate (4-7) parity xii (χ2=11.79, P<0.003) respectively. In conclusion, the hygienic milk production activity in the area as a whole requires an intervention. Mastitis has been found to be an important disease in the area. This indicates proper mastitis control should be practiced by maintaining an appropriate cow's environment and udder health management program by the farmers including further investigation on the etiological agents associated with prevalence of mastitis to undertake measurable control options of mastitis in the area. Keywords: Dairy cow, hygienic, milk, mastitis, prevalence, Jikawo, Nuer, Gambella, Ethiopia
ASSESSMENT OF THE CONTAMINATION OF BEEF WITH SALMONELLA AND KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND BEEF HANDLING PRACTICES ALONG BEEF SUPPLY CHAIN IN DUKEM TOWN, ETHIOPIA
(2017-06) Zelalem, Sisay; Dr. Fanta Desissa , Dr. Gezahegn Mamo
Salmonella is a major cause of food borne disease in the world, with an increasing concern for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant strains. A cross-sectional study was conducted between November, 2016 and April, 2017 to estimate the prevalence, and determine the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Salmonella, and assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices along beef supply chain in Dukem town. A total of 286 samples comprising feces, carcass swab and retail meat were collected and examined for the presence of Salmonella following the standard techniques and procedures. Hundred respondents consisting of 20 abattoir workers, 20 butchery workers and 60 consumers participated in the study. Systematic random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were used to generate the desired data. The overall prevalence of Salmonella along the beef supply chain was 6.3% (95% CI: 3.9-9.7). The specific prevalence of Salmonella based on sample source was 0.9%, 2.9%, and 12.7 % in feces, carcass swab, and retail meat, respectively. There was statistically significant difference along the beef supply chain(X2 = 14.3027, P <0.05). Among the isolates, 94.4% (n=17) were resistant at least to one of the antimicrobials. All the isolates (100%) were sensitive to Kanamycin where as 94.4%, 88.9% and 83.3% of the isolates were found to be sensitive to Sufisoxazole, Tetracycline and Nalidixic acid, respectively. Multi-drug resistance was observed in 27.8% (n=5) of the isolates.Majority (95%) of abattoir workers didn’t know that contaminated carcass has public health risk. According to the respondents, falling of carcass in the dirty floor and sudden stomach cut were the major possible sources for carcass contamination. All of the abattoir and butchery workers received neither job related training nor medical check up. Most (70%) of consumers had habit of eating raw beef and 73.3% of them had no knowledge about the transmission of Salmonella via meat consumption. In conclusion, the study found the occurrence of Salmonella along beef supply chain with higher prevalence at meat retail shop and the variability in the susceptibility pattern of Salmonella isolates against the tested antimicrobials. It also showed that the existing beef handling practices, knowledge and attitudes about the importance of occurrence of Salmonella along the beef supply chain could be a potential public health risk unless the necessary intervention is in place. All stakeholders should raise awareness in minimizing the occurrence of Salmonella and thereby transmissions of resistant Salmonella to humans and risk of raw beef consumption along the beef supply chain particularly at meat retail. Moreover, identifying Salmonella serotypes circulating in the area and regular monitoring of the heath status of workers and hygienic condition of the slaughter house and meat retail shop is recommended.
Bovine tuberculosis: Epidemiologic aspects and public health implications in and around Debre Birhan, Ethiopuia
(2008-06) Shihun, Shimelis; Dr. Gezahegne Mamo, Dr. Gobena Ameni,
A cross-sectional study to assess the epidemiology and zoonotic implication of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) was conducted on 1055 cattle in and around Debre Birhan between December 2006 and October 2007 using a comparative intradermal tuberculin (CIDT) test, abattoir surveillance, bacteriology and molecular typing. Besides, 140 livestock owners were interviewed for the evaluation of the zoonotic potential of BTB. On the basis of the CIDT test, animal and herd prevalence were 2.7% (14/524) and 9.3% (13/140), respectively, while in abattoir-based study the prevalence was 22% (117/531). Male animals were more likely (OR= 1.7; P=0.012; 95% CI: 1.12, 2.55) to exhibit tuberculous lesions as compared to female animals. The proportion of culture positivity was 32% (40/125) in tissue samples. But, because of the scarcity of molecular facilities, only nine isolates were typed in Veterinary Laboratory Agency (VLA), United Kingdom. Out of these, seven isolates were positive for the genus Mycobacterium of which two were identified as M. tuberculosis. The two M. tuberculosis species had the same spoligotype pattern. Awareness of cattle owners about BTB was poor (25.7%) and thus cattle owners were found to consume raw milk, soured milk product (yoghurt) and raw meat. A total of 3407 TB patients received short course therapy in health institutions found in Debre Birhan with in five years, of which 79.9% (2723/3407) were between 15 to 50 years. Thus, detection of BTB both in live and slaughtered animals, lower awareness of cattle owners about the disease and the prevailing habit of consumption of animal products would suggest the potential role of BTB as a zoonosis, while the isolation of M. tuberculosis from animal tissues warrants the existence of transmission of this agent from humans to animals. Therefore, practical and sound control methods such as strict meat inspection, boiling of milk and cooking of meat, and public education to raise the awareness on the transmission of the disease are recommended.
BRUCELLOSIS IN BORENA CATTLE: - SEROPREVALENCE AND AWARENESS OF THE PASTORAL COMMUNITY IN YABELLO ETHIOPIA
(2017-06) Roba, Jilo; Dr. Fanta Desissa, Dr. Tujuba Jergefa; Dr. Gezahegne Mamo
There is insufficient information on brucellosis on Borena cattle at Dida Xuyura ranch and its surroundings, despite its impact to the development of the cattle industry in Ethiopia. The present study was conducted from November 2015 to May 2016 in Yabello district, Borana zone, Ethiopia. The study was cross-sectional and the objectives of the study were: estimation of prevalence of bovine brucellosis, assessment of risk factors and assessment of knowledge of pastoralist about the disease and its risk factors in Borana cattle at Dida Tuyura ranch and its surrounding. The study animals were selected by multi-stage sampling. Blood was collected from selected animals and serum was extracted. The Sera samples were screened using the rose Bengal plate (RBPT) test and those which tested positive were further tested using Complement fixation test (CFT) for confirmation. Sixteen (16) cattle out of 661 (2.4%; 95 5 CI: 1.39, 3.9) tested using RBPT were found to be positive. The sero-prevalence was 2.94% (95% CI: 1.42, 3.53) in animals sampled from Dida Tuyura Ranch where as it was 1.86% (95% CI: 0.68, 4.01) in cattle sampled from pastoralist‟ herd surrounding the ranch. However, only 5 animals were found positive with CFT in animal sampled from Dida Tuyura Ranch yielding a prevalence of 1.47% (95% CI: 0.48, 3.41). from Six animals which gave positive reaction to RBPT from pastoralists‟ herd in the vicinity of the ranch only two gave positive reaction to CFT yielding a prevalence of 0.62% (95% CI: 0.162, 4.73). Taken together the seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis as revealed by CFT 1.1% (95% CI: 0.43, 2.17). Univariable logistic regression analysis showed that previous history of abortion and retained fetal membranes were significantly associated with sero-positivity to brucellosis (P<0.05) whereas sex, age, parity, body condition and PAs were not associated with infection with Brucella (P>0.05). In the multivariable analysis, only abortion (OR=13.46, p<0.05)) remained to be independently associated with brucellosis seropositivity whereas other not. The results of questionnaire survey revealed that the majority of the pastoralists or cattle attendants do not have sufficient knowledge about brucellosis and are at risk of acquiring the infection. Therefore, educating the pastoralists about the disease through extension service on the handling of aborted fetuses and assistance of delivery is important. In addition breeding animals must be tested before distributed to pastoralists.
BRUCELLOSIS IN BORENA CATTLE: - SEROPREVALENCE AND AWARENESS OF THE PASTORAL COMMUNITY IN YABELLO ETHIOPIA
(2017-06) Roba, Jilo; Dr. Fanta Desissa, Dr. Tujuba Jergefa; Dr. Gezahegne Mamo
There is insufficient information on brucellosis on Borena cattle at Dida Xuyura ranch and its surroundings, despite its impact to the development of the cattle industry in Ethiopia. The present study was conducted from November 2015 to May 2016 in Yabello district, Borana zone, Ethiopia. The study was cross-sectional and the objectives of the study were: estimation of prevalence of bovine brucellosis, assessment of risk factors and assessment of knowledge of pastoralist about the disease and its risk factors in Borana cattle at Dida Tuyura ranch and its surrounding. The study animals were selected by multi-stage sampling. Blood was collected from selected animals and serum was extracted. The Sera samples were screened using the rose Bengal plate (RBPT) test and those which tested positive were further tested using Complement fixation test (CFT) for confirmation. Sixteen (16) cattle out of 661 (2.4%; 95 5 CI: 1.39, 3.9) tested using RBPT were found to be positive. The sero-prevalence was 2.94% (95% CI: 1.42, 3.53) in animals sampled from Dida Tuyura Ranch where as it was 1.86% (95% CI: 0.68, 4.01) in cattle sampled from pastoralist‟ herd surrounding the ranch. However, only 5 animals were found positive with CFT in animal sampled from Dida Tuyura Ranch yielding a prevalence of 1.47% (95% CI: 0.48, 3.41). from Six animals which gave positive reaction to RBPT from pastoralists‟ herd in the vicinity of the ranch only two gave positive reaction to CFT yielding a prevalence of 0.62% (95% CI: 0.162, 4.73). Taken together the seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis as revealed by CFT 1.1% (95% CI: 0.43, 2.17). Univariable logistic regression analysis showed that previous history of abortion and retained fetal membranes were significantly associated with sero-positivity to brucellosis (P<0.05) whereas sex, age, parity, body condition and PAs were not associated with infection with Brucella (P>0.05). In the multivariable analysis, only abortion (OR=13.46, p<0.05)) remained to be independently associated with brucellosis seropositivity whereas other not. The results of questionnaire survey revealed that the majority of the pastoralists or cattle attendants do not have sufficient knowledge about brucellosis and are at risk of acquiring the infection. Therefore, educating the pastoralists about the disease through extension service on the handling of aborted fetuses and assistance of delivery is important. In addition breeding animals must be tested before distributed to pastoralists.
Brucellosis in Cattle, Camel and Human: Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors in Amibara District of Afar Region, Ethiopia
(2020-06) Fekadu, Gutema; Dr. Kebede Amenu, Dr. Gezahegn Mamo
A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of brucellosis in camels, cattle and human and its associated risk factors in Amibara district of Afar region from October 2019 to May 2020. A total of 250 camels ,181 cattle and 120 human sera were collected. Sera were screened using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and samples positive for RBPT were further confirmed by Complement Fixation Test (CFT). Risk factors associated with brucellosis in livestock and human were also assessed by structured questionnaire. Association of risk factors with brucellosis were analyzed using chi-square (fisher exact test) and firth’s bias reduced logistic regression model. The result indicated that, the overall seroprevalence of brucellosis was 7.6% (95% CI:0.04-0.11) by RBPT and 3.2 % (95% CI: 0.0163-0.062) confirmed by CFT in camel and 10.5% (95% CI:0.068-0.158) by RBPT and 2.2% (95% CI:0.0086-0.0553) confirmed by CFT in cattle respectively. In human the overall seroprevalence of brucellosis was 10% (95% CI:0.058-0.167) by RBPT and 3.33% (0.013-0.082) as confirmed by CFT. The risk factors analysis indicated that, age (χ2=10.7; p=0.004), body condition (χ2=10.26, p=0.0022), number of parity (χ2=11.2, p=0.0008) and abortion history (χ2=29.96; p=0.004) were significantly associated with seropositivity of camel brucellosis. But, kebeles, sex, herd size and history of placental retention were not significantly associated with brucellosis seropositivity (P>0.05). Based on multivariable firth’s bias reduced logistic regression analysis, only camels with history of abortion (OR=49.6, P=0.002, 95% CI=2.148-6.34) were significantly associated with brucellosis. In cattle, age (χ2=6.77, p=0.021), number of parity (χ2=9.433, p=0.004), abortion history (χ2=16, p=0.002) and placental retention (χ2=19.1, p=0.003) were significantly associated with brucellosis seropositivity. Multivariable firth’s bias reduced logistic regression analysis indicated that, only number of parity (OR=12.2, P=0.0012, 95% CI=-7.47-3.17) and history of abortion (OR=41.14, P=0.003, 95% CI=1.16-8.69) were significantly associated with Brucella infection. In human, occupation (χ2=6.925, P=0.028), handling of dystocia case, usage of protective gloves and sheltering of animals showed significant association with Brucella seropositivity. Likewise, multivariable firth’s bias reduced logistic regression was computed and only daily based temporary occupation type showed significant association with brucellosis seropositivity (OR=18.85, P=0.029*, 95%CI=1.324-2730.32). The survey results also showed that, from a total of 120 human participant interviewed, 91.7% (110/120) of them drink fresh raw milk on a regularly basis where by 2.78% of them owned sero-positive animals and 3.33% of them tested positive for the disease. The results of the present study indicated that, brucellosis is a common health problem in camel, cattle and human in Amibara district of Afar region and it was found to be associated with raw milk consumption and close contact with the animals having history abortion. Therefore, controlling the risk factors, establishing brucella diagnostic service in human clinics and hospitals, continuous social training with feedback assessments and overall implementing of One Health approach framework to attain optimal health for people and domestic animals in area are recommended to safeguard the health of society.
Brucellosis Seroprevalence ,Knowledge, Atitude and Exposure risks of Herdes’in Somalia region,Ethiopia
(Addis Abeba University, 2022) Abdullahi Adan; Prof.Bekele Megersa; Dr.Bedaso Mammo
Brucellosis is a contagious bacterial disease caused by the genus Brucella that poses a major public and animal health problem in many parts of the world, particularly in pastoral settings where livestock and livestock products are the primary source of income. A cross-sectional study was conducted from December, 2021 to April, 2022, to estimate the prevalence and associated risk factors of livestock and human brucellosis, as well as to assess herders' knowledge, attitude, and exposure risk in three selected districts of Somali region, Ethiopia. A total of 1000 blood samples were collected from goats (n=201), sheep (n= 99), camel (n= 450) and human (n=250). The serum samples were screened with Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) and positive ones were further confirmed using competitive Enzyme Linked Immino Sorbent Assay (cELISA). The results showed that 45 (6.0%) and 28 (3.7%) of the animal samples tested positive for RBPT and cELISA, respectively. Samples from occupationally linked human, on the other hand, were confirmed positive 9(3.6%) by RBPT and 5(2.0%, 95% CI, 0.6-4.6) by cELISA. Goats had the highest seroprevalence (6.5%; 95% Cl, 3.5-10.8), followed by camels (2.9%; 95% Cl, 1.5-4.9) and sheep (2.0 %, 95%CI, 0.2-7.1). Sex, herd size, and herd history of abortion, all showed a significant association with Brucella seropositivity logistic regression analysis. Furthermore, in multivariable Firths’ logistic regression analysis for human samples, factors such as, gender, presence of fever or joint pain, and involvement in disposal of aborted or retained fetal membrane (RFM) were statistically significant (P<0.05). About half of the herders had heard about the disease (48%), of whom very low proportion (17%) knew brucellosis is a zoonotic disease. Despite respondents’ poor knowledge and high involvement in risky practices, significant positive attitudes toward disease prevention were identified in this study. In conclusion, this study provides a baseline information for the implemention of feasible disease control strategy in terms of pastoral community and sociocultural status through one health approach.
CAMEL MASTITIS AND ITS IMPACT ON QUALITY OF MILK IN GEWANE WOREDA, AFAR REGIONAL STATE, ETHIOPIA
(2007-06) FASIL, MENGISTU; Dr. Bayleyegn Molla
Quarter milk samples (n = 404) from 101 traditionally managed lactating camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Gewane district of Afar region were examined to estimate the prevalence of mastitis, identification of bacterial causes associated with mastitis and determine fat and protein content of camel milk. Twenty one of the 101 (20.8%) camels examined were diagnosed as mastitis cases based on clinical signs. Thirty one of the 101 camels (30.7%) udders examined were infested with ticks and had lesion on the teats and udder skin, 45.2% had mastitis. There were significant association (p< 0.05) between tick infestation and mastitis. Lactating camels at early and mid lactation were found most affected by mastitis (p<0.05) than those at late lactation. One hundred ninety six of the 404 camel quarter milk samples (48.5%) were positive for California mastitis test (CMT). Out of 196 positive quarter milk samples, 164 (83.7%) yielded pathogenic bacteria. A positive correlation (r = 0.76) was observed between CMT positive results and presence of major pathogens in camel milk samples. The main mastitis pathogens isolated were Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase-negative staphylococci, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and other Streptococcus species, E.coli, Micrococcus species, corynebacterium, Actinomyces species Pasteurella haemolytica and Bacillus species. Twenty CMT-positive and CMT-negative pooled quarter milk samples each were evaluated for fat and protein content. The average mean fat and protein percentage in CMT-negative milk were 3.83% ± 0.081 and 2.85 ± 0.024 respectively. However, in CMT-negative milk it was 1.97 ± 0.071 and 2.91± 0.13 respectively. Fat percentage were lower in all parity number and stage of lactation but it was not statistically significant (p>0.05). Protein percentage were significantly higher in CMTpositive milk samples in different parity (p<0.05). The present study results suggest that mastitis in camels was prevalent in Gewane district of Afar Regional State, North Eastern Ethiopia. California mastitis test has shown to be valuable indicators of udder infection of camels. Gram positive cocci were the dominant species among mastitis pathogens isolated. Tick infestation together with thorny bushes, use of anti-suckling devices and teat or udder lesions were found predisposing factors to the occurrence of mastitis. Although camels in the Afar pastoralist are managed traditionally on poor quality feed and scarce water source, the protein and fat content of the milk were in the normal range. Slight alterations in fat and protein contents were observed in CMT-positive milk samples

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