Social Anthropology

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An Exploratory Study of Production Practices among the Ari, South Western Ethiopia
(AAU, 1993-06) Yntiso, Gebre; Pankhurst, Alula(Dr
Ethnic Integration and Conflict: The Case of Indigenous Oromo and Amhara Settlers in Aaroo Addis Alem Kiramu Area,Northeastern Wallaga
(AAU, 1995-06) Tolera, Assefa; Reminck, Ronald PhD
Inter-ethnic relationships are one of the least studied subjects in this country. This thesis alms to the meager information we have on the subject, Scholars as well as politicians address ethnic issues. But for different purposes. The former in order to understand them better and the latter to use them as an easy avenue to achieve political power.
The Influence of the Market: Labour, Production Practices and Land Rentals in Gondino Village Ada'a Eastern Shewa
(AAU, 1996-06) Abebe, Behailu; Pankhurst, Alula(Dr
Godino, located 12 Ian in the north east of Bishoftu town in Ada 'a Woreda of eastern Shewa, has been a witness to changes and contm' u'ty f I h . I I 0 ox-p oug agncu ture . Changes have been induced both from external Sources (state interventions as well as urban and market influence) and internal factors (population pressure the horticultural enterprise of Ts'ahafi TIIzaz and competition of farmers) . Like other parts of Ada 'a, Godino agriculture has adapted to the intensification of labour, crop-livestock integration and specialization in cash crops (mainly t'ef, wheat, Sugar cane, and onions) in the 20th century. The horticultural enterprise of Ts' ahafi TIIzaz introduced wage labour, founded crowded settlements, promoted social services, consolidated political control, and resulted in a specialisation in cash crops (notably sugar cane). Households had different levels and requirement of labour for agricultural tasks. Despite encroachment of hired labour from irrigated on rainfed agriculture even before the revolution, cooperative labour was utilized in bigger sizes and frequency. After the revolution, wage labourers dominated tenants in the competition for exclusively utilizing irrigated fields through their association which was favoured by collectivization of the darg regime. During this period , differentiation took on new fo rms based on oxen ownership, availability of labour and cash resulting in the coining the word taramaj for successful farmers. The earlier processes of crowded settlement, specialization in cash crops and crop-livestock integration have been further intensified. During the mixed economy policy of the darg, commercialization of farm land commenced with the introduction of new land rentals. The significance of large-sized cooperative labour was drastically reduced after the 1975 land reform. Following the predominance of cash-oriented production, hired labour gained prominence over cooperatl. ve a I b our, w hich , although it has been sustained to the present time , has been much reduced in scale.
The Nuer as Refugees: A Study on Social Adaptation
(Addis Ababa University, 1997-05) Felge, Christiane; Mergessa, Dr. Gemetchew
Culture bases on analogy. and Nuer culture bases on cattle analogy which becomes clear in exile where they are absent. In this short essay I have shown that in a situation where there are no cattle N uer have created the ," social. cattle", called Pinyudo cow as an analogy to explain a social phenomena. The cattle while physically absentis theoretically made present in exile to organise and order society., Thus the Nueras refugees have created cattle metaphors which can be cattle under conception,' cattle with calves, bulls, heifers etc.
Tradition Denied: Economic Development and Change among the Gibo Oromo Peasants of lllubabor
(AAU, 1997-06) Lemessa, Zergaw; Megerssa, Gemetchu (PhD)
In an attempt to uncover some factor that have been con traint to agriculrural productivity, this paper concentrates on the investigation of the spec ific historical conditions and the contemporary siruation of the Gibo peasants. Most of the srudies hitherto made in different pans of the country try to single out factors such as system of land tenure, low level of technology , government policy , tradition, etc., as bottlenecks to productivity. Such works are characterized by lack of thorough treatment of the issues. I maintain that although productivity can be determined by a number of complex factors, some among several play a primary role in hampering productivity . The other factors in fact can be explained in terms of consequences of the dominant ones. Tradition is often conceived as something opposed to development and change. Hence all possible measures are taken by policy makers to do away with tradition. In contrast this paper argues that while "tradition" and "modernity" are not in conflict with one another, the deteriorating living conditions of the Gibo peasants can be attributed to external factors. In spite of the serious challenges that narure exerts on them (drought, diseases, pests , rodents , wild animals, etc.), that can be beyond the control of peasants, most of the time the people's problems are deeply rooted in human relations and actions. Environmental degradation, fragmentation of land, and other constraints are the results of such relations and actions. Thus low agricultural productivity prevalent in the community understudy could largely be attributed to ineffective government policies and their consequences rather than to tradition.
Socio-Cultural and Economic Conditions Influencing Women's Status and Role in Family Planning Decision-Making: The Case of Kotebe District (Woreda28), Addis Ababa
(Addis Ababa University, 1998-06) Emire, Guday; Megeressa, Dr. Gemetchu
This thesis is an attempt to examine the possible socio-cultural and economic conditions influencing women's status and role in family planning decision-making with specific reference to Kotebe District (Woreda 28), Addis Ababa. The thesis discussed the theoretical issues and perspectives with regard to population growth as a population problem and the mechanisms of population controL A significant number of useful studies have been conducted which account for aggregate fertility trends or explain individual fertility behaviours with some degree of power. But here the most central issues are: Do the respective societies and their individual members articulate the population problem and its relationship to development in its aggregate form? Why do couples desire large families which render the notion of fertility regulation irrelevant to their lives? For those couples who perceive the need to regulate their fertility, what are the subjective and economic costs of adopting contraceptive technology? It can be firmly asserted that the weakness of fertility research to date is not one of the poor theoretical formulation, but its failure to place fel1ility within its local socio-cultural and economic context. Here it should be noted that couples behave rationally within their respective socio-cultural and economic context~ and their perceptions which are functions of the respective circumstances might be ditlerent from those of policy makers or scientists in a laboratory or library. In other words, high fel1ility persists in much of the world not because parents are foolish but because they are not disadvantaged by large families. The primary goal of this research was to examine the status and role of women in family planning decision-making. The available literature on this topic has been identified and, to some extent, established four possible loci for this mechanisms (a) the change in the fertility belief system, which lowers the society's optimal family size in recognition of such factors as decreased mOl1ality or decreased child utility. (b) A downward shift in the actual and perceived economic value of children to their parents, with respect to their perceived socio-emotional value, resulting in lower desired family size. ( c) A cognitive shift in the direction of increased rationality and sense of personal control over the environment, making family planning decision and implementation possible. (a) An increase in couple communication 011 fel1ility matters, which makes achieving fertility goals more efficient and etlective. This thesis assumed that all four approaches above mentioned are valid to some extent. They are woven into a hypothesized three stage fertility decision models which were developed by Christine (1985). Today pure disciplinary models are somewhat rare. Social, cultural, economic, psychological and other variables are pm1s of the more successfitl models, in recognition of the complexities and subtleties of the issue. In ShOI1, economic, social, cultural and psychological factors interact on feI1ility. Economic circumstances affect the value orientations of the socializing generation, set constraints on family building patterns, and open or close possibilities for cultural diffusion Educational levels of the cohorts, their mentality, and their economic planning effect fertility decisions. The central theme of this study was that the status of women and their role in community and family decision-making, including the timing and numbering of bil1hs and choice of contraception, have an important bearing on improving the standard of living, the success of family planning and a long term reduction in the fel1ility level of a coulltry. , , /I FUl1hermore, the research sought answers to the fiJllowing more specific questions in line with Christine's (1985) fel1ility decision-making model These were (1) To what extent are women's fel1ility goals motivators of their behaviour, and to what extent are they mere reflections of circumstances? (2) Is the fel1ility decision process like that of other family decision processes, or in what ways does it differ? (3) To what extent is the fel1ility decision process an active one, that is, to what extent are fertility decisions made versus simply being left up to fate? (4) What is the extent of a woman's participation in and control of the family decision-making process, and does this extend to decisions about her own fertility? (5) What gives women the ability to assert their individual fertility goals, especially in the face of a hostile family environment? (6) What factors constrain women's involvement in f~1I11ily planning decision-making and how can we challenge these constraints? The present study assumed that women's control over their own fertility decision process depends substantially upon attributes which they possess which give them prestige in the eye of the family and the community, as well as upon the resources which they control which are the basis of their present and future security Resource and attributes are both material and non-material ownership of land or implements of production, the skills to use those implements, influential kin ties, affiliation with one's spouse, and the satisfaction of social norms for childbearing, among many others. These all may function to grant women power in the family decision-making process in general and in the n1mily planning decision-making process in particular. However, hereTt should be noted that the socio-econolnic conditions by ti1emselves cannot explain women's fel1ility behaviour. In our local social and cultural context, women's fertility behaviour is greatly influenced by the socio-cultural values attached to childbearing. Moreover, the persistent traditional negative attitudes towards a 'barren' woman is one of the socio-cultural imperatives influencing women's involvement in family planning programmes
Marriage and Marital Conflict Resolution among Orthodox Christians in Some Selected Areas of Addis Ababa
(Addis Ababa University, 1998-06) Shiferaw, Tassew; Admassie, Yeraswork
In Addis Ababa, there are three forms of marriage practiced by Orthodox Christians: civil, customary, and church marriages. An attempt is here made to describe these marriage froms as well as marital conflicts and their resolution. The rules governing each marriage form as well as the process of establishing it are examined. Similarly, marital conflicts and the procedures employed in their resolution are described. Literature review, observation, case , studies, and interviewing have been used with the view of gathering information on marriage and marital conflict resolution. It is shown that the three forms of marriage have their own respective regulations. Devout Orthodox Christians usually perform church marriages, while non-devout ones enter into one of the other two forms of marriage. Though they seek the advice of friends and relatives, people in Addis Ababa are generally free to select their spouses. Bridal gifts (t'ilosh) are often given by the groom to the bride. This, along with wedding costs and the shortage of housing result in late age at marriage in Addis Ababa, thereby negatively affecting the family life cycle. Those who get married at later ages may pass away before their children become self-sufficient adults. Marriages often result in conflicts which can eventually lead to divorce. Such conflicts are resolved according to the provisions of the Civil Code which usually involves tedious procedures and arbitration money. This appears to have undermined the traditional arbitration mechanism, resulting in marital arbitration becoming an income-generating profession. Marital conflict causes different troubles to the partners and their children. The conflict or divorce of their parents can cause considerable suffering to children.
The Response to Agricultural Adoption in Boru Lencha Kebele,Hitosa Wereda,Arsi
(AAU, 1999-06) Sisaye, Michael; Shazali, Saleh PhD
This dissertation is a contribution to the investigation and analysis of the implementation of the government-sponsored agricultural extension prohramme in the particular case of Boru Lencha Kebele .Arsi Zone of Oromiya State.The prior extension experience of peasants in the kebele induced them to seek participation in the programme.
Zege and IT'S Coffee Local Livelihoods and Natural Resource Utilization in Northwest Ethiopia: The Case of Zege Peninsula
(AAU, 1999-08) Mesfin, Rahel; Ghaffar, Abdel. Professor
The thesis is committed to explore and comprehend the factors influeneing natural resource utilization in Zege Peninsula. Northern Ethiopia.Zege Peninsula is located in West Gojjam zone, Bahir Dar Zuria Woreda (district administration) of the Amhara region.The research attempts to give an overview of the livelihood situation and natural resource utilization of the people in Zege.
Indigenous Institutions of Conflict Resolution among the All'ala Afar of North-Eastern Ethiopia
(AAU, 2000-05) Tafere, Kelemework; Haile, Mitiku(Dr
This is a study on indigenous practices of conflict resolution among the Afar who share a common boundary with Tigrayan highlanders in northem Ethiopia. The latter constitute a separate ethnic group and have a slightly ditferent lII eans of subsistence. The aim of tile study was to examine tJle types of disputes in historical perspectives and understand local ways of handling conflict ranging from the intra-clan to the inter-ethllic level. The study revealed that the nature of conflict changed with changes in the ecological, socio economic and political arena . Ecological disasters causing huge livestock loss have forced the Afar to diversify their means or incolll e to cope up with the situation. This shih in tile Ineans of livelihood had its own effects as far as the traditional institutions and value systems are concerned. With a shift fi'om nomadic based economy to cultivation, the pastoral attitude of cOllllllullal ownership of land altered and conllicts taking the fOl1n of land disputes and water diversion rights became rampant. Urballisation alld wage labour lIIigration had also weakened kinship obligations and clan solidarity alllollg the !d~lr which bear th eir own influence on local disput e settl ement. On the highl and-Iowlalld dilll ension, past experiences reveal that raids triggered by resource competition, loss of stock and the quest for social honour had been COllllllon . Currently, however, sedentarisation reduced mobility of the Afar and minimised the extent of inter-etIlJlie cOllflict. In lct , this together witJI existing cross-cutting ties, economic and social relations with highlanders strengthened peace in the northern PClltS of the ethnic boundary. III sOllie cases, fights that OCClll' uetwecn illdividuals or slliall groups cspecially in thc southem territory ollcn quickly turn into inter-etlUlic conflict expressed in replisals. But dissolution of the traditional political systelll of the soutJlern highlanders has made it difficult for them to pursue their institutional violence against tJle Afar. Besides, the cUIl'ent Federa1 systelJl of govemment has generally enabled the Ajar to see themselves as a group giving little imp0l1ance to clan differences. Thjs along with the Afar people's increased involvement ill lIational affairs created power balallce between them aJld the Tigrayan highlanders leading to a reduction in tJle prevalence of raids. When conflicts occur at various levels, tlle AJar generally rely more 011 their own local dispute settlement forums than the government legal machinery. Within their OWII group, clan elders as well as kjnship and clomestic groups maintain peace through sanctiolls following mablo assemblies. Relations with the hi ghlanders are also regulated via a jointly established institution called (Jereb, which eJlforces order based on written customary laws. At present, govemlllent illstitutions also co-operate with local inter-ethnic mediation at diOerellt stages.
The Experience of Persons with HIV / AIDS in Addis Ababa and their Relations with Institutions Rendering Health and Counseling , Services
(AAU, 2000-05) Admassu, Anannia; Pankhurst, Alula(Dr
This research has foc used on investi gating a range of issues re lated to the chall enges being faced by Persons With HIV / AIDS (PW As). Through establishing trust among selected PW As, particular emphasis was put on examining the nature of the problems they are faced with in their day-to-day lives in the process of interaction with spo Llses, families, friends and institutions that are rendering sC'rv ices for persons with HIV. The study has confirmed that the stigma attached to HIV!.-\IDS is one of the most crucial factors that affect the readiness of PW As to disclose or not to disclose their sero status to their partners. It is difficult for them to change their sexual havi r even if this involves a potential danger of infecting the other partner. It has been revealed in this study that there are differn ti al responses by spouses and caregivers to PW As. Some families and partners have managed to accept the situation in which a member of their family and/or spouse is found and try to offer their support to let him/her live positively with AIDS. On l. he other hand, there have been instances where the revelation of one's sero status caLlses instability and separation of partners. The stigma towards PW As and lack of sufficient knowledge on the part of caregivers has many PW A from getting the necessary care and die with dignity.
Gender Roles in Agricultural Production among the Sidama of Southwestern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2000-06) Dejene, Sintayehu; Shazali, Dr. Salah
The study finds out that hoe-cultivation has been and continues to be the dominant system of agriculture ill Sidama. Ilowcver, at present peasants in some parts of the Sidama have adopted plough cultivation. This study reveals that irrespect ive of the farming techniques used men playa pivotal ro le in both food and coffee production. Iloeing/pioughing, ferti lizing, sowing, planting, weeding and harvesting are the major agricultural operations carried out by men. Women, on the other hand, are mainly invo lved in manuring and processing the Sidama's important staple, cnset. Thus, the study argues that Boserup's ( 1970) generalized account of women's dominance in hoc system of agriculture does not hold true for the Sidama. The study reveals that, in Sidama, the gender divi sion of labor in agricultural production persists over a century's dramatic socio-economic and political transfonnation. The Sidama undcrwent changes, among others, in the customary tenure system, cropping patterns and agricultural technology. Despite these changes long- establi shed gender roles remain unchanged. In addition, this thesis exhibits an identical gender-based division of labor in both coffee and food v producing areas on the one hand, and in hoe and plough cultivation areas on the other. Thus, the findings of this study suggest that the types of agricultural technology, land tenure system and cropping patterns do not adequately explain the pattern of gcnder roles in agricultural production. Before land became a scarce resource polygyny was the dominant form of marriage in Sidama. At present monogamy is the major type or marriage. Ilowever, some Sidama men who have large and dispersed plots of land sti ll practise polygyny. The persistence of polygyny can be attributed to the Sidama's heavy reliance on cnsct production in which women are indispensable mainly in manuring and processing it and Sidama mcn's strong desire for many chi ldrcn. This thesis argues against the proposition that claims the existence of a relationship between bridcwealth and women's dominance in agricultural production. Bridewealth is the only form of marriage payment in Sidama, but men are important actors in agricultural production. Bridegroom's parents transfer eash to the bride's parents not in exchangc for women's agrieultura llabour. The study argues that bridewealth payment in the study area mainly entails the transfer of exclusive righ ts to a husband and his kinsmen over children.
Adaptailon, Culture and Changing Environment: the Case of the Gumuz of the Diddessa Valley (Kamasi Zone), West Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2001-05) Iffa, Abeya; pankhurst, Alula (PhD)
This Study attempts to explain adaptive strategies and coping mechanisms employed by the Gumuz in response to constraints or in their effort to adapt to the ecology of the diddessa valley in the Process.
Ethnic Relations and Social Change among the Dant'a in Southern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2001-06) Eyoel, Mulugeta; Barisso, Tadesse(ph.D)
This thesis describes th e ethnic relations and soc io-cultural change among the Dant'a of southern Ethiopia. The major objectives of the study are to explore the ethnic relations and soico-cultural change in terms of marriage practice, kinship ties, administrative and religious systems, political power and economic relations, and interdependence in rel ations to the neighboring communities such as Kambatta, Hadiya, Donga, T'ambaro and others. It also examines to identify the impact of government policies imposed on them and their role in changing the nature of the ethnic relations with the neighboring communities during the Haile Sellasse, the Derg and the EPRDF regimes. The conquest of Dant'as and their neighboring communities by Menelik's troops in 1892 and the establishment of the Naflanna Gabbar system had resulted in the eviction of many Hadiyas and their settlement in the territory of Dant'a. In turn, this resulted in shortage of cultivable land in the territory of Dant'a and led some of their community members to move to Gibe (Omo) valley where they could subsist on pastoral way of life. The Dant'as conversion from their previous traditional religion and Orthodox Christianity to Protestant Christianity is resulted from the activities of missionaries who thought the Bible in local languages and who constructed schools, clinics, health centers, roads and other infrastructures in their locality. Moreover, their long established marriage relationship with the neighboring Hadiya resulted in shift of many of their younger generation from their ancestoral language of Kambatssa to Hadiyissa. The government policies of designing the administrative map of the country and naming the administrative units of Awraja (province) and 'Woredas' (districts) without taking a local condition of settl ement patterns and population distribution of various ethnic groups into consideration during Menelik and the Haile Sellasse regimes have been the main cause for the escalation of conflicts and emergence of competition over the political power and economic opportunities in subsequent periods of the Derge ,md the EPRDF regimes. In this regard, the Haile Sellasse's regime was not able to resolve the conflict among the Dant'a and the neighboring communities which was associated with an issue of renaming the Kam batta 'A wraj a' and T'ambaro ' Woreda' into names which could represent all community groups who live in these ad mini strative divisions. However, the Derg regime made an effort to reso lve the conflict among these communities by naming the "Kambatta Awraja" into "Kambatta and Hidiya Awraja" in May 1976. Nevertheless, IX both the Oerg and the [ PROF governments co uld not able to res lve the co nni ct assoc iated with 'Woreda' name inhabited by the Oant'as, the two groups of Hadi ya (Agar and Sooro) and other . Sub equently, th e change in nati onal politics of the country and the EPRDF policy of des igning the admini trati ve map of the co untry along ethni c and/or lingui stic lines further aggravated the connict between the Oant'a and the neighboring communities, and resulted in competiti on over politi cal power and economi c opportunities at the zone and 'Woreda' levels. In addition, th e cial relationships of Oant'a with the neighboring Hadiya at the local level ha been adverse ly affected and changed as a res ult of politi cal change. Moreover, the ex isting national politi cal climate led the Oant'a to demand for power sharin g at the zone level and recently for their own spec ific 'Woreda' admini stration by cl aiming di tinct identity.
Change and Contunty in an Islamic Community:The Case of Muslim Women Statuses at Kamissie and its surrounding
(Addis Ababa University, 2002-02) Mulugeta, Alemmaya; Gemechu, (PhD)
When studies among the Muslim societies were being done, it is often thought that Islam as a religion at a higher degree dictates the women’s status and by the same implication affects it to the worst. But this has never been a case among Muslim women at kamissie where women stay in public because of the changes taking place around them. Their exposure to the public does not leave them for stigmatization rather the religion itself is interpreted as to enable them to justify both women and men positions in their societies This thesis therefore,tries to show the variability that exists in women’s role and social positions in a changing Islamic community at Kamissie. The thesis claims that the variability in women’s role and social positions is not only to be a function of geographical and environmental factors but also a function of the historical in terms of social, economic and political development. The thesis also claims that Muslim women in Kamissie not only differ from other women in Muslim societies, but they also differ among themselves due to their access to different levels of human and material resources
Socio-Cultural and Behavioral Aspects of Hiv/Aids Among Young Adults in Bahir Dar Town, Northwestern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2002-02) Belay, Sebsib; Amare, Yared (PhD)
This thesis is a study of the socio-cultural and behavioral aspects of HIV/AIDS among young adults (in the age-bracket 20-29) in Kebele 4 Administration of Bahir Dar, Northwestern Ethiopia. The objectives are to: (i) investigate socio-cultural meanings of and conceptions about AIDS among young adults; (ii) study the socio-cultural context of AIDS and its impact on sexual activity among young adults, including the gendered aspects of attitudes and behavior regarding sex and HIV risk; and (iii) examine young adults' beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, practice and behavior towards PLWHA's, and PLWHAs' experiences in the community and the health care system. The study is based on 100 days of fieldwork, which included participant observation, interviews and discussions with local officials, and young informants, a focus group discussion, and case studies of 15 young adults (7 males and 8 females), and 3 PLWHA cases (1 female and 2 males).The thesis first describes the daily lives of young adults in Bahir Dar as a basis for understanding the social context for youth behavior and attitudes. This discussion shows that many youth live in a context of poverty, unemployment, high drug and alcohol abuse, male dominance and female submissiveness, and vulnerability. It is within such a context of vulnerability youth construct their understanding of HIV/AIDS. They generally have an adequate understanding of the nature of HIV and its modes of transmission, but the use of youth narratives reveals youth conceptions of HIV/AIDS incorporate a broader set of dimensions including moral, social and behavioral/individualized notions. For the youth, AIDS is commonly conceived as a symbol of moral failing and a form of God's justice. AIDS also represents certain social categories, social problems, gender inequality, and a mechanism of social control. In addition, AIDS is co-nceived in terms of its social function in the society. Alternatively, AIDS is also associated with individual characteristics and outcomes such as self-destructive behavior, a self-inflicted random occurrence, a romantic/desirable form of death, as well as with sexuality. The thesis also gives substantial attention to youth sexuality because it is strongly intertwined with the reality of HIV/AIDS in terms of youth conceptions, mode of transmission, and changes in sexuality in response to the epidemic. Youth sexuality is a function of sexual attitudes, social significance of sex, risk perception and risk-prone behavioral and social contexts.People living with HIV/AIDS are an important aspect of the significance of HIV/AIDS in the lives of the youth. The thesis therefore discusses the psychological and social status of PLWHA's, the care and treatment available to them, and their self-help efforts. PLWHAs' reactions to their HIV-positive status ranges from emotional reactions such as shock and confusion, resort to begging, moral judgements about their past behavior, self-blame, and feelings of experiencing retribution, lack of desire to discuss one's concerns about AIDS with anyone except concerned people. The social status of PLWHA's is characterized by stigma but also acceptance by some. Institutional care provided to PLWHA's consists of considerate treatments by certain medical professionals on the one hand, and social biases by others on the other due to lack of awareness and belittling attitudes on the part of some workers. The family and, especially women, are a primary source of care for PLWHA's, but moral judgements on the part of caregivers and attempts to control information flow about PLWHAs' status may affect the level of care provided. Self-help Association of PLWHA's is accessible to PLWHA's, but is weakened by resource shortages
Old Age and Social Change: An Anthropological Study of the Lives of the Elderly among the Amhara of Ensaro
(AAU, 2002-05) Mengesha, Kifle; Pankhurst, Alula(Dr
Old people are important members of a given society. Nevertheless, the extent of attention given to this group varies considerably. In Ethiopia, demographic reports unanimously indicate that the conventional productive and reproductive age group ranges between 15-49 years. This implicitly shows that those aged over 50 are not considered important. This study was designed to explore the livelihoods of old people in rural area, an important and yet poorly studied group. The study was carried out among the Amhara of Ensaro. The major objectives of the study were to describe the life of the elderly in the context of local social, cultural and economic frameworks. The study specifically addresses such questions as emic definitions of old age, dynamics of old people's life styles, gender related activities of old people and intra and inter generational ties between the old people and the younger generation. Data relevant to the stated objectives have been collected using a combination of techniques. These include participatory observation, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, sample survey, taking pictures, and recording daily routines and events. These methods are designed to compliment each other. Forty informants were chosen purposefully from the total number of three hundred sixty three people aged fifty-five and above. The major findings of the study show that definitions of old age are based on biological, functional, psychological, and social attributes. However, functional attTibutes were found to be common markers of old age. As long as a person carries out his normal activities he is not considered to be old. Based on a chronological definition, it was gathered that local people established the onset of old age and three categories of elders. Age 55 is regarded as the threshold of old age and age brackets 55-65, 65-75, and 76 and above are considered young old, middle-old and old-old respectively. The study explores the roles and statuses of old people under three Government administrations (Haile Selassie, Derg, and EPRDF). In the Haile Selassie (Monarchic) regime elders had a high status and role and commanded good respect. It can be argued that this is mainly because children were directly allocated land by their parents when they established households of their own which in turn strengthens filial piety and respect toward their parents. Elders were responsible to handle such social problems as blood feuds and other conflicts in their community. During the Derg regime, however, land was nationalized and redistributed among members of the society. Most of the children who reached the marriageable age could be allocated land through leaders of peasant association. This trend had a negative impact with regard to respect and filial piety towards the aged. Furthermore, the emergence of various mass organizations eroded the role and status of the aged, most of the young became orators in public in the presence of elders, unlike previously.
Continuity and Change in the Status of Women: The case of Arsi Oromo Living Adjacent to Upper Wabe Valley (Dodola)
(Addis Ababa University, 2002-05) Deressa, Daniel; Terefe, Hirut (PhD)
This thesis attempts to explain the causal factors for relegation of the status of Dodola Arsi women both from cultural view and economy determinist approach through a comparative study of Serofta and Nagelle Meexamo PAs. To this end, it begins with a discussion of social organization which shows that, according to the traditional social category, there are five levels in the form of Kinship structure in the Dodola Arsi Oromo. Namely: Mana, Warra, ardaa, balbal aand gosa. These are interconnected with lineages and clans. Traditionally, there is Gada practices which governs the political, economic and cultural life of the Dodola Arsi Oromo However, women are excluded from the Gada class which is the main source of public status. Nevertheless, there are women’s institution like ateete, Qanafaa, Siinqqee and rakoo by which women safeguard and defend their interest both in the family and in the community. These are female enterprises. The study has found that in both PAs, there are similar cultural and economic environment which have direct impact on the status of women. Thus, both in Serofta and Nagella Mexama, the socio-economic status of women is lower than that of males which emanated from sex biased socialization ideology in particular, and socio cultural values in general. Based on this, it is argued that cultural values exert substantial influence on the status of women. In this thesis, it is also argued that in Serofta and Negelle Meexama, traditional social status of women persists, albeit in altered forms, long after fundamental changes took place in their political and economic base under the disguise of “modernity”. Traditional marriage practices which have impacts on the status of Dodola Arsi women also persisted with slight change in forms. Rare forms of marriage practices which do not have cultural approval and which entails negative impact on the xii status of women are also introduced. With that, sex related crimes were also perpetrated on women. However, though modern education is introduced, it did not change much the status of Dodal Arsi women. Their participation is very low both in schools and professional fields. This have direct repercussion on economic self-reliance of women. The women are still fettered with traditional norms and values both in domestic and public sphere. Through an analysis of economic achievement of individual women, it was argued that within the framework of structural opportunities and constraints, there is some place for women to improve their economic condition which help raise their low economic status. The economic prospect of women as an individual and category can be elevated by reconsideration of women’s traditional institution, by increasing decision making power of women both in the household economy and in public, by facilitating women’s accessibility and control of resource particularly to agricultural lands and imputes and promoting women’s technology through intensification of education opportunities. In the final analysis, it was suggested that the present low position of Dodola Arsi women is the result of both cultural and economic leverage which made their male counterpart superior in community in general, and in the household in particular .
Socio-Economic Reintegration of Ex-Soldiers: A Case of Two Cooperatives one male & one female in Addis Ababa
(Addis Ababa University, 2002-05) Tafere, Yisak; Pankhurst, Alula (PhD)
When the EPRDF fighters defeated the Derg army in May 1991, the losing army was totally demobilized. The new Transitional Government of Ethiopia established a Commission, which facilitated the return of the ex-soldiers into civilian life. Among the estimated 500,000 demobilized soldiers about 156,710 preferred to settle in the urban areas of the country of which 42,914 returned to Addis Ababa. To receive reintegration supports, some members of the demobilized soldiers were organized in cooperatives and in Addis Ababa about 1,755 ex-soldiers were engaged in different cooperatives. This thesis attempts to investigate the socio-economic reintegration of the ex-soldiers organized in two cooperatives. The study is largely based on detailed life histories of the ex-soldiers covering pre-military life through to the present situation. The ex-soldiers, 13 males and 9 females, have different reasons for their recruitment. Some of the reasons why they joined the army were to defend a country, as a job opportunity, for career development, initiated by army family members, etc. Once they joined the army they were engaged in combat, political work, office duties and technical activities. Females were however confined to only secretarial duties. Despite the government’s claim of economic, political and security reasons for demobilization, all of my respondents categorically objected to it. Some considered it as revenge by their previous war enemies, others as uprooting from normal life, and interruption in career development. One can easily accept their arguments given that demobilization of a regular army may mean displacing them from normal ways of life unlike the guerilla fighter where the reality would be the reverse. The ex-soldiers were assisted to start a productive and civilian life to achieve economic and social reintegration. Economic reintegration would mean the engagement of the demobilized soldiers in gainful productive activities and secure economic independence. They could achieve social reintegration through social cohesion and their acceptance by the receiving communities. Male ex-soldiers seem to achieve both economic and social reintegration. They are engaged in full time productive activities and earn more than double what they had been getting in the army. On the contrary female ex-soldiers have failed, especially economically, to achieve reintegration. The major reasons for the variation in their integration are identified as follows. First, males had the opportunities to develop technical and management capabilities in the army. But females were confined to secretarial works. Second, the skills and management capabilities gained in the army were transferred to civilian activities in the case of males. They were engaged in wood and metal works, the activities they know very well. Those with management capacities who were commanders and political leaders in the army have taken the responsibility of managing the business. But females’ secretarial skills were disregarded and members were ordered to organize themselves in food processing, a traditional women’ duties. Third, in the case of males the project study was carried out properly in a way it could end in success. An open area was given for construction, enough grants were provided, better follow up continued until it developed. In the case of the females, the project study was not well worked out. They were given container shops at the edges of the main streets, two of which were removed after seven-years, leading to their eventual displacement. At the moment the females are left with no actual productivity and income. When government help fails the community steps in supporting the ex-soldiers. Female exsoldiers continued to secure support from their relatives, friends and the community. Hence, in their current economic situations they depend on the size of their social networks. The economic support gained from the community indicates that they are relatively socially integrated. This in return is more influenced by the area they settled in. They have returned to a city where most were living before. And more importantly the multiethnic nature of the community helped them not to be expected to conform to certain ways of living. There is little religious, language or other cultural barriers, which might hinder integration. Hence, the exsoldiers are almost invisible as soldiers. But it is difficult to generalize because there are still some who are trying their best to achieve full social integration. Among others, longer military life (males) and unemployment (females) still remain as barriers. In general, it seems appropriate to conclude that both male and female ex-soldiers have been relatively socially integrated and the males have also developed self-reliance economically. Females failed because of accumulated problems, beginning from neglect in the capacitybuilding in the army, disregard of their skills in transformation into civilians, and, more importantly, placing them in poorly designed reintegration projects and negligence to correct the problems. If demobilization, among others, was motivated by economic development those demobilized persons should have been a part of it. It should not have contributed to the already prevailing high unemployment
Old Age And Social Change: An Anthropological Study of the Lives of the Elderly among the Amhara of Ensaro
(Addis Ababa University, 2002-05) Mengesha, Kifle; Pankhurst, Alula (PhD)
Old people are important members of a given society. Nevertheless, the extent of attention given to this group varies considerably. In Ethiopia, demographic reports unanimously indicate that the conventional productive and reproductive age group ranges between 15-49 years. This implicitly shows that those aged over 50 are not considered important. This study was designed to explore the livelihoods of old people in rural area, an important and yet poorly studied group. The study was carried out among the Amhara of Ensaro. The major objectives of the study were to describe the life of the elderly in the context of local social, cultural and economic frameworks. The study specifically addresses such questions as emic definitions of old age, dynamics of old people’s life styles, gender related activities of old people and intra and inter generational ties between the old people and the younger generation. Data relevant to the stated objectives have been collected using a combination of techniques. These include participatory observation, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, sample survey, taking pictures, and recording daily routines and events. These methods are designed to compliment each other. Forty informants were chosen purposefully from the total number of three hundred sixty three people aged fifty-five and above. The major findings of the study show that definitions of old age are based on biological, functional, psychological, and social attributes. However, functional attributes were found to be common markers of old age. As long as a person carries out his normal activities he is not considered to be old. Based on a chronological definition, it was gathered that local people established the onset of old age and three categories of elders. Age 55 is regarded as the threshold of old age and age brackets 55-65, 65-75, and 76 and above are considered young-old, middle-old and old-old respectively. The study explores the roles and statuses of old people under three Government administrations (Haile Selassie, Derg, and EPRDF). In the Haile Selassie (Monarchic) regime elders had a high status and role and commanded good respect. It can be argued that this is mainly because children were directly allocated land by their parents when they established households of their own which in turn strengthens filial piety and respect toward their parents. Elders were responsible to handle such social problems as blood feuds and other conflicts in their community. During the Derg regime, however, land was nationalized and redistributed among members of the society. Most of the children who reached the marriageable age could be allocated land through leaders of peasant association. This trend had a negative impact with regard to respect and filial piety towards the aged. Furthermore, the emergence of various mass organizations eroded the role and status of the aged, most of the young became orators in public in the presence of elders, unlike previously. Under the present government (EPRDF) land was redistributed and those who were labeled as ‘feudal’ during the Derg regime suffered again during this regime and were labeled as kirit fudal (remnant-feudal) and those who were involved in the Derg bureaucracy within the peasant association were labeled as ‘bureaucrats’ and allotted only four gemed (one hectare) irrespective of the size of their household. Most of these people (‘bureaucrats’) have already reached old age and were the subject of this study. Like other Amhara societies, Ensaro is a male dominated community. Despite this fact, gender roles and activities are relaxed to some extent and sometimes reversed in old age. Housekeeping and looking after children by old people are some of the cases in point. Intra and inter generation ties are important strategies to adjust to different problems of old age. Good relationships with spouses, children, and other kin group members are taken as vital mechanism to cope with problems. The support system between male children and elderly parents is reciprocal where children are nurtured early in their life and latter benefit from their elderly parents property while elderly parents obtain immediate care and attention from their male children. Most often social problems of the elderly are argued to be an urban phenomenon. However, this study clearly found that the problems are widespread in at least this area. It was found that the poor elders are denied proper care and support from potential caretakers mainly because this group do not have sufficient property to share. The middle-old and the old-old categories are vulnerable to socio-economic problems, mainly the later for they are not able to augment their income by participating in various activities. Abuse in old age such as neglect, exploitation, abandonment, and physical attack are also prevalent among the old age group with relatively more effects on the poor elders. Elders follow various mechanisms to sustain their livelihoods. The poor youngold participate in other activities such as daily labour, selling sugarcane and wild fruits, and some of them send out their male children to adjust the size of their households and also to obtain income in the form of grain from the labour of their children. The middleold and the old-old, mainly the later depend on caretakers, mainly children. They also attend church services and receive food alms around churchyards

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