Occurrence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Salmonella at Human Animal Environment Interface in Household Setting Bishoftu, Ethiopia
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Date
2026
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Addis Abeba University
Abstract
Salmonella enterica is a leading cause of zoonotic illness, posing a significant public health concern in household settings, particularly where humans and animals share space and access to clean water, hygiene, and sanitation facilities is limited. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance complicates control efforts. From December 2025 to April 2026, a cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella at the human animal environment interface in household settings in Bishoftu, Ethiopia. A total of 266 households were included, and 1463 samples were collected from infant stool, soil, water, hand rinse, food, and animal feces. A household survey was conducted on hygiene, sanitation practices, and animal waste management, and antimicrobial use. Salmonella was confirmed using Matrix- Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization time- of- flight (MALDI- TOF) mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the Kirby- Bauer disk diffusion method for nine antibiotics. Critical sanitation gaps included infrequent water treatment (93.98%) and (73.68%) shared latrines, most without handwashing facility (78.5%). The animal waste management system was poor; 73.7% of households either disposed of waste in a waste bin or rubbish pile or did nothing at all, indicating that nearly three-quarters of households lacked proper waste management practices. 80.1% caregivers were unaware of AMR transmission between animals and humans. Over all Salmonella prevalence was 2.12% and the highest prevalence was recorded in animal feces (6.8%). Of 31 82.8% were susceptible, 5.4% showed intermediate resistance, and 11.8% of them exhibit resistance and the highest resistance was tetracycline (32.26%). MDR occurred in 6.5% isolates and all recorded from
soil. In conclusion, the study demonstrates critical gaps in sanitation and animal waste management. These finding confirms that poor household practice and animal waste contribute to Salmonella transmission and antimicrobial resistance, underscoring the urgent need for integrated one health interventions.
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Keywords
Salmonella, One health, Antimicrobial resistance, Child care, Household