Rural Development Studies

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The Impact of Cluster Farming on Crop Productivity in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia: Evidence from Dejen Woreda
(Addis Ababa University, 2022-06) Wondimu Dirar; Abate Mekuriaw (PhD)
Cluster farming is one of the approaches formulated in the Ethiopian agricultural sector to uphold location-based initiatives with an aim to modernize the smallholder farming subsector and leap forward from the traditional, less productive, and subsistence farming to a new and systematic way of production. In the case of Ethiopia, cluster farming is not a thing any farmer could adopt unless whose land falls into selected suitable sites. This study was initiated to understand the impact of cluster farming on teff crop productivity by drawing evidence form Dejen Woreda. And at the same time to understand how clusters are formed and how farmers are perceived the approach. Both quantitative and qualitative types of cross-sectional data were collected from randomly selected 384 participant and non-participant households and both descriptive and econometrics (Propensity Score Matching) data analysis tools were used by taking the approach (CF) itself as a determinant of productivity. Accordingly, the results show that the formation process was top-down and not in complement with ATA’s framework when it comes to consulting famers, providing explanations, providing training. In relation to farmers perception, results show that farmers have positively accepted and perceived the approach even if most of them believed that participation hasn’t brought change except input usage, getting more extension service and lowering of pest infestation. In terms of teff productivity, the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) estimation also show that participant farmers had advantage of teff productivity by 208 kg/ha or 2 quintals compared to non-participants. The study asserted that the approach indeed has a positive impact on teff productivity and it is positively accepted. Thus, finding of the study suggest that the approach has encouraging roles to capitalize on and some loopholes that needs attention of the Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Dejen woreda agricultural office, woreda official, experts’ development agents and farmers themselves regarding sensitization and awareness creation, provision of training, facilitating credit services and other essentials including the quality of extension services, input, technology and market as per the approaches recommendations and packages
The Impact of Rural Saving and Credit Cooperatives on Women Empowerment in Arsi Negelle, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2022-06-03) Ebisa Edosa; Alemu Azmeraw (PhD)
This study was conducted to identify and evaluate the determinants of membership decision and intensity of participation in the RSCCs and its impact on women empowerment in Arsi Negele, Ethiopia. A mixed research method has been employed to address the research objectives. A multistage sampling method was used to obtain data from 362 households in Arsi Negele Woreda. The binary and ordered logistic regression and the Propensity Score Matching methods were used for the quantitative data analysis. The collected qualitative data were also analyzed by the methods of narration, summary and interpretation. The study revealed that the RSCCs had a positive and significant impact on women empowerment. However, the RSCCs lacked inclusivity as it favored the FHHs, more schooled women, and better off households. Furthermore, trust and perception mattered in enhancing women‟s probability of joining the RSCCs. The study result also showed that the age, schooling years, marital status, family size, duration, group size, and distance significantly determine women‟s intensity of participation in the RSCCs. Therefore, the cooperative promotion agencies and rural development partners should appreciate the identified policy variables determining women‟s membership to ensure the inclusivity of the RSCCs. Moreover, the woreda level cooperative agencies should develop profiles of the members so that the training can particularly target the younger, less schooled, junior members, and women from the large family and land size to strengthen their intensity of participation in the RSCCs.
Production Efficiency, Commercialization of Cereal Crops and Multidimensional Poverty among Farm Households in Major ‘Teff’ Growing Areas of Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-12-17) Fisseha Zegeye; Abrham Seyoum (PhD)
The majority population in SSA including Ethiopia is multidimensional poor, resides in rural areas, and depends on smallholder agriculture for their livelihood. Hence, poverty alleviation and agricultural productivity growth remain the primary policy agenda for many developing countries in SSA. In Ethiopia, cereals are the principal staple crops strategic for poverty alleviation, suggesting that the prospect of increasing cereal outputs has crucial policy importance to design anti-poverty strategies and thereby improve smallholder welfare. This dissertation, therefore, examined the effect of technical efficiency and commercialization of cereal crops on household multidimensional poverty in rural Ethiopia. The study followed a mixed-method research design in which more emphasis was given for quantitative research design with an embedded qualitative research approach. Primary data was generated from randomly selected 392 sample farm households in the year 2019/2020 from major teff-growing areas of Ethiopia using structured questionnaire, key informant interviews (KIIs), and focus group discussions (FGDs). Descriptive and inferential statics was applied to explain farm households’ characteristics. The study also used a wide range of analytical and econometric models: Stochastic Meta-Frontier, Tobit Model, Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), Vulnerability Analysis, Fractional Logit Model, IV Tobit Model, CMP, DoseResponse Function, and 3SLS Model to address the objectives of the study. Thematic analysis was applied to analyze qualitative data. The result of the study indicated that the average technical efficiency score of farm households was found to be 58%, inferring that about 36% of cereal output is lost due to inefficiency. The results showed that the adoption of high-yielding varieties together with production methods improves production efficiency. Moreover, sex of the household head, age of the household head, mobile phone ownership, cooperative membership, access to modern inputs, and stress incidence were found the major determinants for efficiency. The study, hence, asserts that the cereal output can be improved with the current input mix and technology. The results revealed that, on average, about 38% of cereal crops produced were commercialized, suggesting a semicommercialized production system. The simultaneous model estimates coffered that cereal commercialization significantly improves the use of production inputs and cereal yield at 1% level. Bi-directional causality between commercialization and technical efficiency was also confirmed at 1% level. This means that enhancing commercialization among cereal farmers helps to improve land and labor productivity and thereby brings an upward shift in the production technology. Moreover, the results showed that the extent of cereal commercialization positively determined by sex of the household head, land size, credit service, mobile phone ownership, improved seed, and agricultural assets, while negatively influenced by family size, dependency ratio, and non-farm employment. The incidence of poverty, the mean deprivation scores, and MPI were found to be 57.9%, 44.1%, and 31.2%, respectively, implying a higher proportion of farm households were classified as multidimensional poor. The study showed that improving technical efficiency and commercialization of farm households significantly decreases MPI. Overall, information asymmetry, cooperatives, input and output market integration, modern technologies, incidence of crop stresses, land reform and land rent in/out practices, improved livestock breeds, rural infrastructure, and services were among key areas of policy recommendations
Relating Pastoralists’ Culture Orientation, Livestock Marketing Practices, and Household Food Security among the Afar Pastoralists of Northeastern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2022-07) Derib Woldeyohannes; Worku Tuffa (PhD); Workneh Kassa (PhD)
Ethiopia's arid and semi-arid regions provide the lion's share of the country's livestock resource endowments. Regardless of pastoral resource endowment, these areas are the poorest and most reliant on relief aid. Drawing on the debating contention that pastoralists prefer to accumulate and use pastoral produce for cultural purposes rather than trading for cash incomes, this thesis hypothesized that ‘the long-standing pastoralist tradition favors the accumulation and direct use of pastoral produce rather than remaining open to the market for exchange, thereby missing out on indirect (exchange) benefits toward food security’. Pastoral culture is present in the daily lives of pastoralists who establish and maintain relationships with one another by employing traditionally valued practices such as reciprocity and herd mobility. These are traditional survival strategies imbedded in their social norms, values, knowledge and institutions that are built up through generational learning, passed down orally through generations, and govern overall life. These communities rely on the traditional livestock farming sub-sector for their livelihoods and to meet their food consumption needs. In the face of recurring droughts, marketing pastoral produce is also a widely pursued approach to improve food security, and it has become equally important for supporting livelihoods in these areas. But, the potential contribution of pastoral marketing to the food security of pastoral production has received little attention. To this end, this study is guided by three key concepts: pastoral culture, marketing, and food security. Following that, the thesis attempted to address three specific objectives ultimately revealing the relationship between ‘pastoralism’, ‘marketing’, and ‘food security’ through a case study and survey data collected from (agro-)pastoral communities of Afar in Ethiopia. The study sought to shed light on the contribution of (agro-)pastoral marketing practices to food security by determining the extent to which pastoralists adhere to their traditions and how their orientation to culture norms influences their marketing interests. The thesis includes a literature review as well as three empirical studies. Methodologically, the thesis employed a mix of systematic literature review, case study analysis, household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS), ordered logistic regression, and propensity score matching (PSM) procedure. It begins with a systematic literature review to uncover "rural marketing – rural livelihood" relationships, which revealed that rural marketing had positive results at times and negative results at others, resulting in mixed effects on livelihood. The mixed effects necessitate a better understanding of the conditions that make rural marketing useful, as well as the mechanisms by which potential benefits may emerge. The review findings also indicate vii that, while rural marketing has been somewhat successful among upland communities, there is little empirical evidence that the same holds true for (agro-)pastoralists, implying that more research on the livelihood effects of rural marketing using data from (agro-)pastoral groups is required. As a result, using data from (agro-)pastoralists (as representing rural communities that received little attention in the reviewed ‘rural marketing – rural livelihood' relationship studies), the thesis empirically tested the potential positive/negative relationship between marketing practices and food security (as representing livelihood outcome). The first empirical study discovered a misalignment between Aramis-Adaar traditional practices and their livestock marketing endeavors, in which they operate under two competing systems of cultural and marketing practices (though both are important in sustaining livelihoods). Following the case study, the survey used Aramis-Adaar pastoral and Asale agro-pastoral groups and revealed ‘the links between pastoral cultural elements and food (in)security’, and estimated ‘the food security effects of livestock commercial-orientations’. The survey results suggest that while properly integrating pastoralists into the market could be an important mechanism for overcoming the numerous problems that constrain pastoralism, livestock marketing practices fall short of adequately and sustainably supporting pastoralism, owing primarily to market production constraining factors such as pastoralists' cultural orientations. Future policy must align and level the playing field for market production ('competition') and pastoralism ('cooperation') in order to meet the needs of both pastoralism and marketing at the same time.
Smallholder Farmers Crop Commercialization, Livelihood Diversification Strategies and Multidimensional Poverty: West Gojjam Zone, North Western Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023-01) Lijalem Abebaw; Worku Tuffa (PhD); Dawit Alemu (PhD)
Commercializing crop production is the pathway for economic development. Previous studies examined agricultural commercialization and diversification process; agricultural commercialization and its impact on income and nutrition; determinants of rural poverty; determinants of market orientation and crop output commercialization. However, investigating the association between crop commercialization; livelihood diversification strategies; and poverty is scanty. This study was aimed at investigating the association between smallholder farmers‘market orientation, crop output commercialization, livelihood diversification strategies and poverty and determinants of each theme. The study used pragmatism research paradigm comprises quantitative and qualitative research designs used to understand determinants of smallholder farmer’s market orientation, crop output commercialization, and rural households‘livelihood diversification strategies and impact of output commercialization on household poverty in west Gojjam zone, northwestern Ethiopia. Multistage random sampling method was used to sample 405 respondents and a structured interview was conducted. The quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, Chi-square test, independent sample t-test, zero-inflated beta regression, multivariate probit regression, and endogenous switching regression. Qualitative data were collected using focus group discussion and individual interviews, which were then, analyzed using narration and thematic methods. The results of the analysis revealed education, farmland rental contracts, infrastructure development, and soil fertility improving technologies are needed to increase market orientation. Better farmland allocation for marketable crops, access to technologies, lowering input purchase costs, reducing output market price seasonal volatility promotes output commercialization. Purpose, combined with sector, location, and function, is an important criterion to classify livelihood diversification strategies. Accordingly, rural households‘livelihood diversification strategies classified in to onfarm wealth accumulation, off-farm survival, non-farm survival self-employment and non-farm survival wage-employment and non-farm wealth accumulation. Agro-ecology and crop output commercialization enhances rural households‘engagement in on-farm and non-farm wealth accumulation livelihood diversification strategies. Finally, crop output commercialization reduces rural households‘poverty. The results imply market orientation translates to output commercialization; output commercialization induces rural households‘engagement in on-farm and non-farm wealth accumulation livelihood diversification strategies; and reduces household poverty. Therefore, commercializing smallholder farmers‘crop production prompts rural households‘engagement in wealth accumulation livelihood diversification strategies and improvement of households‘welfare.
The Contribution of Women Entrepreneurship Development Project to Women Income and Empowerment In The Vicinity Of Bahir Dar, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023-05) Loza Kibret; Bamlaku Alamirew (PhD)
This study aims to assess the contribution of the Women Entrepreneurship Development Project to women income and empowerment through access to credit lines in Bahir-Dar area in Amhara Region. In this study, both primary and secondary data collection methods were used as a source of data collection methods. In these studies, stratified random sampling techniques were followed to select the entrepreneur women’s those are project beneficiary and non-beneficiary living in the study area. The research used descriptive statistics, Logit model and Propensity Score Matching to achieve the objectives of the study. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) technique were employed to single out the contribution of the project from other potential confounding factors. Multiple linear regression model result shows that, among hypothesized explanatory variables, marital status, education and access to finance significantly affect women’s economic empowerments. In addition to this the study identified that age of women, women’s level of education, Access to finance, business training and access to infrastructures were positively and significantly influencing the participation in women’s entrepreneurial development project, while Marital status was negatively and significantly influencing the participation in women’s entrepreneurial development project. The estimated average treatment effect (ATT) showed that project participation has significant effect on income of the household with significant t-statistic (1.98) at 5 percent significance level (p < 0.05). The research revealed that participation in the women entrepreneurship development project leads to increased income. Women entrepreneurs who have accessed training and finance from the project have registered more income than their non-client counterparts. To make more women entrepreneurs benefit from these interventions, the project needs to scale up its operations to more regions and towns.
Climate Change Perception, Adoption and Determinants of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Response to Climate Variability the Case of Welmera Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023-08) Mesay Hailu; Esubalew Abate (PhD)
Climate change is one of the globe's most significant impediments to agricultural productivity and production, with the most devastating consequences in developing countries. As a result, understanding climate change perception and CSA practice adoption level and the influencing elements is critical for policy development and making decisions on CSA practice implementation. The research was conducted in Welmera Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia. From the Woreda’s three kebele, 306 respondent farmers were selected. A cross-sectional survey, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were employed for primary data. A review of related literature was employed for secondary data. Ordered logistic regression and multivariate Probit were employed for analysis of quantitative data. Rainfall and temperature data were analyzed using Mann-Kendall and Sen Slope methods. Qualitative data were analyzed by narration methods. The result indicates 66.6% of the farmers strongly believed that maximum temperatures have been increasing over the last three decades. The result shows 39.8% , 59.5%, and 82.7% of the farmers believed that increased in weed infestation, frequency of livestock illness occurrence and crop disease occurrence. Late onset of main rainy season was perceived by 48.7% the respondents, while 63% perceived early offset of rainfall. 43.8% of all respondents believed that erratic nature of rainfall has increased, and 53.9% believe that water levels are dropping and water sources are disappearing. Conservation agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, and crop diversification are the study areas most extensively used CSA. Based on economic constraint model, having relatively large farmland significantly, increases the adoption of conservation agriculture, improved soil fertility management, diversification of crop, improved livestock feed and feeding practices, and postharvest technology practice. Better farm income increases the uptake of improved livestock feed and feeding. Having a large number of livestock positively influences adoption of conservation agriculture and access credit services has a favorable impact for adoption of agroforestry, crop diversification, and postharvest technology. The innovation diffusion model indicate that access to agricultural extension and training has favorable effects on the adoption of crop diversification; accessibility to participation on farmers’ field day similarly influences adoption of conservation practices and improved soil fertility management. The result indicates an unpredictable pattern of rainfall in the study area together with an upward trend in average temperature. Incorporating location-specific CSA practices in to agricultural program and awareness creation for farmers and experts about climate change are essential.
Rural-Urban Migration, Crop Productivity and Multidimensional Poverty among Households in Gurage Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2022-11) Mesfin Agza; Bamlaku Alamirew (PhD, Asso. prof); Admasu Shibru Keraga (PhD)
Human migration and its consequences are being studied as a global development issue. Analytical data on these topics is critical for the government, and scientific research is continually needed to address knowledge gaps. This dissertation investigated the link between rural-urban migration, crop productivity, and multidimensional poverty in Ethiopia's Gurage Zone. The dissertation, specifically, investigated the determinants of rural-urban migration, conducted a comparative analysis based on technical efficiency and multidimensional poverty index, and investigated the impact of rural-urban migration on household livelihood security, multidimensional poverty, and households' productive efficiency. 384 rural households from three different agro-ecological zones were selected using multistage sampling to collect both quantitative and qualitative cross-sectional data. Descriptive statistics and econometric models such as ivprobit, multidimensional poverty index; propensity score matching; dose response function, and stochastic production frontier models were employed to analyze the quantitative data. The results of ivprobit regression revealed that livestock ownership, family size, access to information, number of cultivated fields, soil fertility, distance to the nearest town, and distance to the farmers’ training center are all important determinants of rural-urban migration. The dose response model revealed that remittance has a positive significant effect on household livelihood security with a local minimum dose of roughly 40%. The mean technical efficiency of non-migrant households, migrant-sending households, and total samples is 45.5%, 72.3%, and 57.4%, respectively. The household head's age and distance from a neighboring town have a detrimental effect on technical efficiency, whereas schooling, soil infertility, migratory experience, and distance to a nearby market have a positive impact. Rural-urban migration results in a 19.4% decrease in crop productivity for households that send migrants. The mean total factor productivity of migrant-sending, non-migrant, and pooled samples, respectively, was 9.87, 10.23, and 10.03. The adjusted headcount ratio of the non-migrant households and migrant-sending households was 19.8% and 10.5 %, respectively. Poverty affects 43.5% of nonmigrant households and 25% of migrant-sending households. Non-migrant households and migrant-sending households contributed 70.5% and 29.5%, respectively, to the adjusted headcount ratio of the total sample. The finding indicate that household size and the educational level of the household heads are significant and positively associated with households’ multidimensional poverty, whereas the number of migrant household members and livestock ownership are negatively associated with households’ multidimensional poverty .The average poverty-reduction effect of rural-urban migration is 4.7% for migrant-sending households, with a 0.6% counterfactual outcome. Overall, this study discovered that rural-urban migration is caused by a variety of factors and has a beneficial influence on poverty reduction but a negative impact on agricultural productivity. Regulating the underlying causes of rural-urban migration as well as its impact on crop production and household poverty reduction requires the active participation of all stakeholders. Various specific recommendations are made to stakeholders for the successful management of rural-urban migration and its advantages in enhancing local programs related to crop production enhancement and multidimensional poverty reduction in the study area.
Reducing Poverty, Food and Nutrition Insecurity, and Destitution: Does Building Resilience Capacity Matters? Panel Data Evidence from Rural Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023-03-20) Dereje Haile; Abrham Seyoum (PhD); Alemu Azmeraw (PhD)
While there are assumptions that resilience has led to curbing poverty, food and nutrition insecurity, and destitution, the empirics are limited to ascertain the linkages and finding out implications for policy uptake in Ethiopia. In light of this, this dissertation examine the role of resilience on reducing welfare problems in rural Ethiopia. The data comes from the three rounds of the Ethiopian Socioeconomic Survey (2011/12-2015/16). Resilience is estimated using the resilience index measurement analysis (RIMA–II) approach. The Alkire and Foster's methodology, on the other hand, is employed to compute multidimensional poverty and destitution. We also attempted to use the third generation poverty measures: structural and stochastic poverty. Furthermore, the study compute food and nutrition insecurity using kilocalories, food poverty, dietary diversity and food consumption scores, and multidimensional perspectives. The data were analyzed using different micro-econometrics techniques in four self-contained but closely related articles. Since alternatives measures have low static correlation and dynamic mismatch, exclusive reliance on a single measure may send inaccurate signal to policymaking. Dominance of transitory escape and impoverishment implies that lifting people out of the pool of welfare problems will not be enough unless descents are simultaneously addressed. The econometric results reveals that climate induced, price and production related shocks and conflict come up as household stressors that exacerbate welfare problems. The other strand of challenge that contributes to the growing welfare problems are dependence on rain-fed farming accompanied with land fragmentation, old-age and female headship, dependency ratio, wage labor participation, loan, and poor road and marketing networks. In contrast, households experienced steady declines in poverty, food insecurity, and destitution as a response to slight growth in resilience. Resilience also serves as a mechanism to deal with welfare problems in the face of shocks. However, resilience is not a panacea. There exists a potential for farming to be an integral part in the process. The farming potential, however, is expected to be tapped through improving commercialization, irrigation, extension, roads, and marketing networks. Currently, it is unlikely to continue as land pressure is increasing due to population growth. Thus, fostering the non-farm economy, good vegetation cover, and human capital formation are imperative. Interventions aimed at eradicating those welfare problems would do well when focusing on enabling factors that can enhance resilience as a conduit mechanism. Besides, more support to should be given to the farming economy. The farming potential is tapped through improving commercialization, investment in irrigation, extension, and road and market networks. Nevertheless, the sector is fraught and less remunerative. Thus, the finding accentuate the need for policy interventions that reinforce productive farming and the non-farm economy. An emerging line of enquiry for the viability and development of rural households generally, and reducing those welfare problems, specifically highlighted the vital role of growth from below and rural revitalization.
Climate-Smart Agriculture: Building Resilience in the Upper Blue Nile highlands of Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023-04-20) Abyiot Teklu; Belay Simane (Professor) , Mintewab Bezabih (PhD)
The scientific basis for conceptualizing how farm households achieve the three CSA pillars of "triple benefit" is not well developed. This dissertation examined the adoption and impacts of CSA innovations on simultaneously enhancing food security, climate adaptation, reducing GHG emissions, and building resilience capacities in 424 smallholder households from five agroecosystems in the upper Blue Nile Highlands Sub-basin of Ethiopia. A structured survey questionnaire was used to collect primary data, and a review of literature and documents was used to collect secondary data. The econometric models employed in this study are the multivariate probit model and endogenous switching regression (ESR). The dependent variables were eight CSA innovations, while the independent variables were crafted from the three pillars of CSA. Major CSA innovations adopted by farmers include improved variety, crop residue management, crop rotation, compost, row planting, soil and water conservation, intercropping, and agroforestry. Farmers' positive perceptions of the benefits of CSA innovations for increasing crop productivity, reducing agricultural vulnerability to climate change, and lowering farm GHG emissions have boosted adoption. The integrated technology adoption model explains the determinants of adopting multiple CSA innovations simultaneously. The economic constraint model demonstrated that farm size, number of plots, and access to financial services influence crop residue management, crop rotation, and agroforestry adoption. The diffusion innovation model, on the other hand, asserts that frequent extension visits, market access, access to information communication, social networks, and strong tenure security have no less of an impact on the adoption of CSA innovations such as improved variety, crop residue management, crop rotation, compost, SWC, and agroforestry. Formal education, more awareness about climate change and CSA, and the ability of CSA innovations to reduce the impact of climate change risks such as rising temperatures, increased hailstorms, and increasingly erratic rainfall have significantly increased the likelihood of adoption. CSA innovations such as improved variety, compost, row planting, and agroforestry have provided farmers with the benefit of enhancing food security and climate change adaptation while reducing GHG emissions from farm plots. Crop rotation provided farmers with enhanced food security and reduced livelihood vulnerability, while SWC met the goals of enhancing food security and reducing GHG emissions. Unfortunately, adopting crop residue management, one of the recommended CSA practices in Ethiopia, has not delivered on at least two of the CSA pillars. Different CSA innovations have XIV different effects on the climate resilience capacity of households. Except for SWC adopters, all CSA innovations significantly increased the climate resilience capacity of households. However, improved variety, crop residue management, and SWC have a more profound effect on the nonadopters than adopters would have had if non-adopters had adopted these CSA innovations. Strong absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacity through strong disaster and early warning systems, climate-resilient infrastructure, a strong public agricultural extension system, a strong informal safety net, and social networks builds a climate-resilient agriculture system among adopters of CSA innovations among farmers. The adoption of CSA innovations has built a strong, climate-resilient livelihood among smallholder farmers. However, the adoption of crop rotation, row planting, and agroforestry has a profound effect on the adopters compared to nonadopters, while the adoption of improved variety, crop residue management, compost, and soil and water conservation (SWC) has a profound effect on the counter-factual adopters. Farmers‟ perceptions towards CSA innovations must be enhanced to increase the adoption of CSA innovations in the smallholder agriculture system. The CSA innovation scale-up strategies should focus on farmers‟ perceptions of CSA innovation benefits towards food security, climate change adaptation, and mitigation outcomes. Awareness of CSA needs the close collaboration of public extension as well as local institutions such as farmers' training centers. Livelihood assetbuilding programs and strong public extension systems via mobile phone, voice messaging, and radio enhance adoption. A policy to identify and scale up a portfolio of farm-level-specific CSA innovations is required. Farmers should be encouraged to adopt improved variety, crop rotation, compost, row planting, soil and water conservation, and agroforestry as the best portfolio of CSA innovation for highland smallholder agriculture systems. As a result, policies that improve governance, social cohesion, disaster communication, early warning systems, input supply of drought-resistant varieties, climate-smart extension services, and climate-resilient infrastructure are required.
Crop Diversification, Food and Nutrition Security among Wheat Producers in Sinana District, Bale Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-09) Derso, Dereje; Tolossa Profe., Degefa
Crop diversification has several economic, social and environmental benefits for smallholder farmers. It Increases farm household income and employment opportunities for farmworkers, improve conservation of natural resources, soil fertility, improve food and nutrition security, and reduces output production shortages. While productivity is constrained by many factors such as technology, resources, environment, socio-economic, infrastructure, and crop pests and insects, food insecurity and malnutrition were Ethiopia's main development challenges. In Sinana District, agriculture is traditional malnutrition is devastating problems, particularly for the poor and unprivileged households. The study builds on the basic assumption that crop diversification plays essential roles in improving household food and nutrition security in rural Ethiopia. The overall objective of the study was to analyze crop diversification, food and nutrition security among wheat dominant producer rural households in Sinana District Bale Zone, Ethiopia. The study is positioned in the pragmatism philosophical assumption that applies to mixed methods research. It focused on primary data that was generated through cross-sectional survey. The cross-sectional survey was conducted using semi-structured questionnaire, Household food Insecurity Access Scale, household dietary diversity questionnaire, anthropometric data, key informant interviews, focus-group discussion and field observations. The study sample size was 384 households. Multistage sampling was employed to study subjects at different scale. STATA software version 14.2 was used to analyze data. Descriptive and inferential statistics and econometric models were used to analyze data. A Cragg’s Double Hurdle model used for measuring the probability, extent and determinants of crop diversification practices of rural households. Ordinary least squares regression model used to analyze the effect of crop diversification on household food security while multinomial logistic and Zero-truncated Poisson regression model were used to analyze determinants of household food insecurity and the determinants of household dietary diversity respectively. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to see the correlation between the nutritional security status indicators and the crop diversification index. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed to identify factors associated with infant nutrition. The result reveal that the average crop diversification index of sampled households was 41.3 percent. The probability of crop diversification was positively influenced by household size, access to fertile farm plots, and access to extension services and negatively influenced by age of household head, and participation in off/non-farm activities. The extent of crop diversification is positively affected by access to extension services, labor availability, membership to farmers cooperatives, and distance to market. The diversification of crops has had a positive and significant effect on household food security. Although crop diversification has been positively associated with household food security, several other factors have been shown to be equally or more important in increasing household food security. Household education, access to irrigation system, owned livestock, total income and remittances have had a positive impact on household food security. Analysis of household dietary diversity has shown that almost all respondents consumed food made from cereal, while only 20.1 percent, 10.2 percent and 7.3 percent of the household consumed egg, meat and fruits in the previous seven days of a survey, respectively. On average, household consumed 5.7 food groups. About 13.5 percent, 50.5 percent, and 35.9 percent of the participants consumed low, medium, and high dietary diversity level, respectively. Education level, participating in irrigation farming, membership to farmers’ cooperatives, farm size and livestock holding positively affected household dietary diversity, while remoteness from the nearest market and remittances negatively impacted household dietary diversity. The prevalence of malnutrition vi particularly stunting (23.8 percent), underweight (21.2 percent) and wasting (9.5 percent), respectively. Crop diversification is negatively correlated with stunting and wasting and positively with underweight and children's dietary diversity score. Child nutritional status is strongly associated with age of household head, maternal and parental education, farm land size, livestock owned, availability of drinking water, sex of children, and dietary diversity of children, family access to sanitation, total annual income and family access to health services. Any effort to increase household food and nutrition security should consider empowerment of farmers through adequate training and informal education, enhancing crop diversification. Policy and development interventions should target intensive agricultural production, rural infrastructure development, and education and awareness tools to be provided. Families update nutritional knowledge and agricultural technologies to increase production and income, and thus improve family nutritional security.
The Impact of Agricultural Bio-Chemical Technologies on Rural Household Food Security: The Case Study of Two Weredas in Oromia Region
(Addis Ababa University, 2000-05) Ejara, Hailu
The Ethiopian agricultural sector, as well documented in many literatures, is characterized by poor technology adoption and as a result low productivity per unit area. The food supply alld demand gap is so high with its resultant outcome of high prevalence of temporary and chronic food insecurity. The dependence on rainfall, severe environmental degradation and high man land ratio are some of the major problems of the sector with their consequent results of persistent crop failures, drought and famine. To curb the problem of food shortages and food insecurity, the country has adopted various strategies in which use of agricultural bio-chemical technologies (Jertilizer, ---- improved seeds alld chemicals), in one way or anoth2r, has been the centerpiece of these _ strategies. The contributioll of these agricultural bio-chelilical inputs, undoubtedly, is positive for food self-sufficiency rather than for food security. This is also true for areas where there is abundant and reliable rainfall. /n lowland areas where moisture is critical for crop production, their impact on increased grain production could be marginal. Thus the hypothesis of this research is that the use agricultural biochemical illputs alone callnot be a means to achieve reasonable level of household food security due to variations in resource endowments at household level, ecological variations, incom?gap and unique characteristics of the households themselves. To prove this hypothesis an intensive review of literatures and data was made. Primary data were also collected from two weredas (HelOsa and Dodota-Sire) of Arsi zone Oronlia Region consisting of ten peasalll associations (kebeles) and 142 households. The hypothesis of this research is proved 10 be true, that fertilizer, improved seeds and chemicals by themselves have insignificalll contriburion and they only explained 21.1 per cent of the variations in household food security (the food self-sufficiency scenario) or thirty three per cent ill the case of food availability scenario. Only fertilizer has a ---significant impac/ on food security among the three. The variations in food security level is more explained by a combined effect of many socioeconomic variables. Taking into consideratioll eleven variables they explained 81 per cent of the variations in the level qf household food security. Thus, the policy implication is that household food security is lIlultidimensional, complex and driven by factors ranging from economic, social, political and socio-cultural as well as environmental. To alleviate this problem a single productioll oriented strategies, mainly focussed on use of modem agricultural inputs, which may not be affordable and suitable for resource poor and various agro-ecologies cannot be an appropriate measure. The strategy should, rather, aims at the inherent condition of the s:ocioeconomic and socio-cultural as well as environmental settings of that particular locality
Ecological Implications of Pastoral Livelihood Diversification in FantaHe Woreda
(Addis Ababa University, 2012-06) Mosisa, Muluneh; Negatu, Workneh (PhD)
The objective of this thesis research was to describe the consequences of pastoral livelihood diversification strategies on the local ecology. A survey type of research was employed, by taking a sample of 90 households in three kebeles out of the total 18 kebeles by using systematic sampling. Besides, focus group discussion and key informant interview were used. Pastoral livelihood assets such as hWi;{li1 indigenous knowledge, social relationships among the pastoralists and traditional institutions such as Gada system are important in wise management of pastoral rangeland and natural resources. All the respondent households assume themselves as pastoralists, while th eir livelihood is diversified 37% to crop farming, 10% to charcoallfirewood selling, 12% to wage labor, 4% to petty trading, and 4% to mining. The data indicated that diversification to cropping and charcoallfirewood making cause negative ecological consequences such as shrinkage of rangelands, deforestation, and increased salinity of soil, soil erosion, damage to the 'gada' ceremonial sites (destruction of trees that were used for Gada gathering), extinction of grass species and wild animals, and threat to the most resilient pastoral system. The study also found out the constraints of diversification to cropping, mining and charcoallfirewood making as climatic conditions of dry land areas, soil properties, rent out of land to urban dwellers, perception of pastoralists on water point development, low level of skill of water users to utilize economically, prevalence of pests and shortage of pesticides, and conflict on land sharing since communal land holding is accustomed to pastoral areas. The following policy implication has been recommended: Pastoral livelihood diversification strategies should be focused to environmental friendly and ecologically suitable activities such as value addition to the livestock products; irrigation water should be used for rangeland improvement and for livestock drinking than for cropping; Pastoralists should be consulted and be able to decide for their destiny; seasonal mobility has to be recognized as adaptation mechanism to the lowland ecology; pastoral livelihood assets such as human capital and social capital that support ecological adaptation have to be improved; concerned government bureaus and offices such as the Land and Environmental Protection Office have to be committed to manage the environmental issues; and pastoralism in this country is going to diminish and hence it should be preserved for heritage. Key words: Pastpralislm, Livelihood, Ecology, Diversification
Land Tenure Issues and Deployment in the Middle Awash Valley Case stoudy on Amibara and Gemane wordes
(Addis Ababa University, 2001) Mohmmed, Yasin; Bedai, Abdulhamid (PhD)
Determinants of Rural Households’ Resilience Capacity to Land Degradation; The Case of Gubalafto Woreda, North Wollo Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia.
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-06) Tefera, Wasie; Semie, Negussie PhD
This paper estimates determinants of rural households’ resilience capacity to land degradation in Gubalafto Woreda. Cross-sectional data collected through field survey by involving 361 households, key informants interview and FGD was the base of the study. Sequentially, explanatory mixed-method-research strategy was adopted as a research strategy. Stratified, simple random, and systematic sampling methods were employed to draw the sample from the study population. The data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics (dominantly percentage) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Socio-economic characteristics of households, perceived effects of land degradation and copping strategies were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Hence, out of the total 361 surveyed households, 293 (81.2%) replied that they were affected by land degradation. Therefore, households employed different coping strategies in response to the effects of land degradation. These coping strategies include; technical coping strategies, consumption based coping strategies and non-consumption based coping strategies, as response to the effects of land degradation. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was also run to estimate determinants of rural households’ resilience capacity. These latent variables (determinants) of resilience capacity were estimated through observed variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) tests of sampling adequacy for all latent variables, except Social Safety Net (SSN) were above 0.5. In addition Bartlett's Tests of Sphericity for each variable (latent) were also significant at different levels, which imply the appropriateness of the model.
Status and Determinants of Rural Households Livelihoods, Poverty, and Access to Agricultural Extension Services in Jimma Geneti Woreda, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-06) Kassa, Tariku; Tufa, Worku
The general objective of this study was to analyze the status and determinants of rural households‟ livelihoods, poverty, and access to agricultural extension services in Jimma Geneti woreda, Ethiopia. A mixed-research design was employed. The subjects of the study were 387 surveys and 90 qualitative study participants. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used to include samples in this study. Both primary and secondary data sources were used to collect and establish the dataset of this study. Survey questionnaires, in-depth interviews, non-participatory observation, and focus group discussion tools were used to collect primary data. To analyze the data, both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were employed. Both the specific and general livelihood indices of the study area show a low/depleted state of livelihood sources. Enhancing rural households‟ information, financial, social, natural, physical, and human capital should not be circumvented. The extent of sample heads‟ livelihood diversification (measured by Simpson Index Diversity) was found low (0.27). That is, sample heads of the study area remained in low-return non-farm livelihood activities only (61.26%). Having a relative risk ratio (greater than 50%), multinomial regression analysis shows that households‟ place of residence, sex, education, marital status, and membership in cooperatives are found significant determinants of rural livelihood‟s choice of livelihood strategies at a 5% significant level. Hence, encouraging rural households to engage in remunerative livelihood strategies (non-farm, off-farm, and/or a combination of activities) requires action-oriented policies. Furthermore, the composite multidimensional livelihood security of samples was found 2.406. Ordered Logit model results show rural heads' Sex, Marital Status, member of cooperatives, Age, F_size, Dependency Ratio, and landholding significantly impacted their state of multidimensional livelihood security. Hence, wider considerations of rural households‟ multidimensional livelihood security analysis should be in place than narrow analysis of food and/or nutritional security alone. Results of descriptive statistics show that sample heads‟ state of multidimensional poverty was found higher (53.1%) than other developing countries like Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria but less than the national average. Results of the ordered logistic regression analysis revealed that kebele, marital status, literacy status, landholding, and membership in cooperatives of the household heads were among the determinants. Hence, policies and programs aiming to reduce rural heads‟ multidimensional poverty in the most deprived multidimensional poverty index indicators like school attendance and years of schooling should be a priority area. Attentions to decompose rural poverty into different categories enable planners to comprehensively understand it and reduce rural poverty. Alongside multidimensional poverty analysis, the involvement of the poor in poverty analysis shouldn‟t be overlooked. Sample heads access to agricultural extension services was found low. Weak links between agricultural research and farmers' extension problems, lack of coordination and communication between agricultural sectors and higher learning institutions, and lower salary level and fewer resources for field agricultural extension agents are found the major potential reasons/challenges that make sample households‟ non-accessed. Furthermore, the Logit model result shows that Kebele/”ganda” of the household head, access to agricultural extension training, access to credit service, irrigation use, and rural households‟ having a telephone were found the major determinant factors. Thus, agro-ecology and need-based, participatory, and pluralistic agricultural extension policy is needed
The Contribution of Rural Productive Safety Net Program (RPSNP) for Households Livelihood Diversification: The Case of Wadla Woreda, Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-06) Lulie, Sabaye; Azmeraw, Alemu PhD
This paper analyzes the role of RPSNP in livelihood diversification. It uses mixed methods across 3 (three) kebeles in Amhara region, North wollo zone, Wadla woreda. Primary data was collected through, key informant interview, focus group discussions (FGD), survey and field observations. The central research question was, does PSNP played a role in increasing the livelihood options of its beneficiaries through increasing farm, non-farm and off-farm income? The result of the study shows the program contributed in diversifying the livelihood options as well as preserving and increasing the livelihood assets of beneficiaries. The main diversification scheme in the study area as a result of PSNP is off-farm and non-farm income. From the total sampled PSNP beneficiary households 72% and 39% responded their off farm and non-farm income increased their livelihood options respectively. The livelihood changes and increased livelihood options of beneficiaries were mainly reflected through the PSNPs resources investment on rural road, irrigation canals, health centers, spring water development, water and soil conservation. It further increased availability of forage, natural resource extraction, such as, charcoal and bee keeping as well as by increasing participation in off farm activities. Generally, livelihood diversification through the help of RPSNP (that is off farm, nonfarm and farm income) has an effect on livelihood status of households in the study area.
Agricultural Input Use, Total Factor Productivity Growth and Rural Poverty: Dynamics and Patterns in Southern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-06) Fikru, Merihun; Alamirew, Bamlaku Associate Professor
Evidence shows that the rate of input use is decisive for productivity growth; the percentage of farmers who applied fertilizer has slow progress in Ethiopia. Studies suggested possible ways of addressing in the limitations of understanding the empirical knowledge and methods. This study analyzed the impact of agricultural input use to augment the productivity of major crops. A panel data of (2011, 2013, and 2015) acquired from the Ethiopian socio-economic survey was used. It was analyzed using the basic fixed effect model and dose-response function under exogenous and endogenous treatment models. In the exogenous and endogenous treatment cases, households applying fertilizer have achieved actual yields with different levels of higher outputs than their counterparts. In endogenous treatment, the household applying fertilizer harvested higher output than those in the counterfactual condition. Though factors affecting the products of crops have a significant effect on their productivity, the level of its impact varies in both exogenous and endogenous treatment approaches. On average, its productivity was 6.16 per year and exhibited a clear upward trend for the first two rounds. Although the upward trend declined from 2013- 2015, the overall productivity increased in the survey years. Moreover, inputs: fertilizer, seed, labor force, farm capital use have a positive effect on aggregate outputs of considered crops. Findings pinpoint the policy that farmers should focus on intensity use of inputs and improve production.
Socio-Economic Assessment of Non-Member Female Headed Households in Multi-Purpose Farmers' Cooperatives: The Case of Machakil Woreda, East Gojjam Administrative Zone, Amhara National Regional State
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-01) Kebede, Mengistu; Abate, Esubalew PhD
The study was conducted with the main objective of socio-economic assessment of non-member female-headed households in multi-purpose farmer’s cooperatives in Machakil Woreda, ANRS. Machakil worda was selected purposively from ANRS East Gojjam Zone. Three multi-purpose farmer’s cooperatives were selected from Machakil woreda, these are Amanuel Zuria, Embuli, and Yewula primary multi-purpose farmer’s cooperatives purposively. From the three multipurpose farmer’s cooperatives, 121 respondents were selected using a systematic sampling method. This means 32, 59, and 30 respondents from each sample multi-purpose farmers’ cooperative proportionally based on nonmember population of each kebele after establishing sample intervals using the systematic method for the survey, respectively. In addition to these 12 key informants were interviewed and 3 focus group discussions were conducted. The required data were collected using quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. The collected raw data were analyzed using the quantitative and qualitative method of data analysis and descriptive statistical tools were used. In the study socio-economic situation of non-member, female-headed households in multi-purpose farmer’s cooperatives were identified. The results show non-member female-headed households live under social situations like heavy workload and time constraints, economic situations like lack of capital and cultural situations like attitude towards women were the basic socio-economic situations of nonmembers female headed households in MPFCs. The socio-economic situations were mainly due to lack of training and awareness creation to the nonmember female headed households about the benefits of multipurpose farmers cooperatives. However, MPFCs give equal opportunity to women and men and the economic and political situation is also supportive of cooperatives development but participation of female headed households are still very low. Thus, the study examines the socioeconomic situation of nonmembers of female headed households in multipurpose farme’s cooperaties of machakil woreda
Small-scale Farmers’ Fruits Value Chain in the Upper-blue Nile Basin of Ethiopia: Participation, Market Performance, Welfare and Food Security Effects
(Addis Ababa University, 2021-06) Mossie, Mengistie; Gerezgiher, Alemseged PhD
Agri-food value chains appear to be the buzzword in recent development debates, frequently in conjunction with rural development promotion. A value chain analysis is required to gain an understanding that can be used to upgrade value chain activities. In spite of the policy options provided by the government of Ethiopia, empirical study on the fruit value chain to design appropriate policies for improvements of the sector specifically, in the study areas is scanty. Cognizant of this gap, the present study is initiated with the objectives of characterizing (mapping) actors involved in the fruits value chain; analyzing the market performance along the value chain; exploring the determinants of farmers’ participation in the fruits value chain; and examining the welfare and food security effects of farmers’ participation in the value chain in the Upper-Blue Nile Basin, North-Western Ethiopia, focusing on apple and mango crops. A random sampling technique was used in selecting survey respondents. The sample includes producers, collectors, processors, traders, and consumers. A pre-tested survey questionnaire was used for data collection. Descriptive statistics, mapping, and market margins were used to achieve the first and second objectives. For the third objective, the double-hurdle model was applied. The fourth and fifth objectives were addressed using endogenous switching regression and propensity score matching, respectively. The study revealed that seedling suppliers, farmers, collectors, wholesalers, retailers, processors, and consumers are among the key mango value chain actors. Seedling suppliers, farmers, collectors, retailers, and consumers are among the main apple value chain participants. In terms of large sales volumes, a channel connecting mango producers to wholesalers via collectors was more efficient, whereas a channel connecting apple producers to retailers via collectors was more efficient. For value chain participants, margin analysis showed that the majority of gross marketing margin goes to traders in both value chains. This implies that the value chain for both apples and mangoes was ineffective due to poor integration and coordination, as well as insufficient support from institutions in the study area. The governance structure of the apple and mango value chain is buyer-driven, with little trust among different actors. Unlike other studies, this dissertation attempted to propose a third type of value chain for developing countries such as Ethiopia known as the “middlemendriven value chain” in addition to the producer and buyer-driven value chains. The study reveals that the likelihood of a household being participating in the apple value chain goes up with household head education level, frequency of extension contacts, experience, and membership in local cooperatives, while it goes down with disease and insect pest incidence and household size. Additionally, mango plot size and membership in local cooperatives were found to increase the likelihood of mango value chain participation decisions. Similarly, level of participation in the apple value chain increases with education, mobile phone ownership, and extension contacts, whereas level of participation in the mango value chain decreases with distance to nearest market and age squared. Furthermore, the study investigates that as more apple and mango farmers join the value chain, their consumption expenditure rises while other factors remain constant. Similarly, the more apple and mango households that participate in the fruit value chain, the higher the household food intake and food security. In essence, policies and programs that support household capacity to produce surplus output, as well as the inclusion of small-scale farmers in more profitable value chains, could increase their participation and improve household welfare and food security. Overall, this dissertation believes that having such first-hand knowledge of the apple and mango value chains is essential to establishing better fruit development initiatives in Ethiopia.

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