Veterinary Parasitology

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Anthelmintic Utilization Practices in Ada’a District and In Vitro Anthelmintics Efficacy Study Against Haemonchus.Contortus and Trichostrongylus.Columbriformis in Oromia, Ethiopia
(2020-06) Gebeyehu Alkadir; Bersissa Kumsa
The present study was conducted to assess anthelmintic (AH) utilization practices in Ada’a District of East Showa zone and evaluate the efficacy of commonly used anthelmintic classes of different brands collected from local markets A structured questionnaire survey was undertaken with 100 respondents farmers owning sheep and/or goats. For the Ah efficacy study, four drugs of different brands (Albendazole (ABZ) for egg hatch test, levamisole (LEV) and ivermectin (IVM) for larval motility test, and tetramisole (TMZ) for adult motility test) were investigated against local isolate of Haemonchus.contortus and Trichostrongylus columbriformis. ABZ and LEV brands originated from China (CN), East Africa (EA) and India (IN), Ivermectin from CN, IN and Uruguay (UG), whereas Tetramisole was from CN and IN. Serial dilutions of the drugs were made to achieve concentrations of 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, and 0.0625μg/ml. g/ml. To undertake egg hatch test 100 eggs/well of H. contortus or T. colubriformis were incubated with the drugs at 270C for 48 hours. Larval motility test was done with 50L3 of H. contortus or T. colubriformis mixed with the drug of choice and incubated at 25 0C for 24hrs after which motile and nonmotile worms were counted. Similarly, the adult motility test was done with 15 adult H. contortus/well mixed with the test AH and incubated at 370c for 10 hours. All tests were done in triplicates and the median values were taken. Control wells contained eggs, L3 or adult worms with distilled water. The findings show that: a) the questionnaire survey indicated ivermectin was the most commonly used drug (39 %) followed by albendazole (36 %), tetramisole (17 %) and levamisole (8%), b) in the in vitro assays, all tested anthelmintics brands showed concentrationdependent responses on eggs, larvae and adult parasites; c) in egg hatch test on T.colubriformis eggs, CN and IN brands of albendazole performed >50% egg hatch inhibition at all drug concentrations; d) the EC50 for inhibition of T.colubriformis egg hatching was 2.375μg, 0.087μg and 1.199μg respectively for EA, CN and IN brands. The EC50 against H.contortus eggs was 0.504μg, 0.017μg and 1.886μg respectively for EA, CN and IN brands; e) East Africa brand of levamisole was more effective at reducing H.contortus larval motility than Indian brand (92% and 76% respectively) at 0.5μg while it is better at 0.5μg, 0.25μg and 0.125μg against T. colubriformis (P<0.05). The EC50 for inhibition of motility of T.colubriformis L3 by levamisole was 0.057μg and 4.028μg respectively for EA and IN brands suggesting a much better performance of EA brand over the Indian brand. The EC50 of levamisole against H.contortus L3 XIII was 0.058μg and 0.048μg respectively for EA and IN brands; f) the three brands of ivermectin at all concentrations tested had similar efficacy against motility of H. contortus L3. The linear regression for concentration-response curve indicates that the EC50 for inhibition of motility of T.colubriformis L3 by ivermectin was 0.073μg, 0.178μg and 0.040μg respectively for CN, UG and IN brands suggesting a lower performance of the Uruguay brand compared to the others. Similarly, the EC50 of ivermectin against H.contortus L3 was 0.025μg, 5.040μg and 3.061μg respectively for China, Uruguay India brands; g) in the adult motility test, both China and India brands of tetramisole have performed similarly against H. contortus. However, the EC50 was 0.134μg and 5.576μg respectively for CN and IN brands suggesting a marginal performance of the former and a much lower efficacy of the latter brand. In conclusion, excepting for few cases, ABZ, IVM and TMZ brands from china origin are more effective against eggs, L3 and adults of the parasites concerned. On the other hand, LEV from East Africa Company is proven effective against L3 of both parasites whereas LEV and IVM from Indian origin are effective only against L3 of one species at acceptable concentration. Therefore, while recommending anthelmintics of choice such variations must be taken in to account.
Hematophagous Flies Species Diversity, Efficiency of Traps and Assocaited Protozoan Pathogens in Cattle in Arba Minch Zuria, Mirab Abaya and Kucha Districts of Gamo Zone
(2020-06) Haile Birhanu; Bersissa Kumsa
Hematophagous flies like Glossina species, Tabanid, and Stomoxys are economically very important parasitic arthropods affecting domestic animals and humans due to their persistent and painful bites, annoyance, blood-feeding behavior and vectors of pathogens. Despite their great importance of Tabanids and Stomoxys only little information is available about these biting flies in Ethiopia. The little information from Ethiopia on these arthropods was reported by few investigators only at the genus level during their studies on Glossina in some areas. The objectives of the present study were to identify hematophagous fly species affecting domestic animals in the study area, to detect associated blood parasites affecting cattle and to compare catching efficiency of NGU, Biconical and Sticky types of traps in three different districts, viz, Arba Minch, Mirab Abaya and Kucha districts found in Gamo zone. For this purpose, a total of 87 traps were deployed at 29 sites by rotating NGU, Biconical, and sticky panel for sampling the flies, and a total of 409 blood samples were collected from cattle. A total of 2985 flies were collected during the study period were morphologically identified into 2536 (85%) genus Glossina, 234 (7.8%) Stomoxys, and 215 (7.2%) Tabanid. The result of the study demonstrated that the genus Glossina 85% (2536/2536) comprised the majority and the predominant proportion of the collected flies followed by 234 (7.8%) Stomoxys and 215 (7.2%) Tabanid. The results of fly identification revealed the presence of two tsetse species G. pallidipes 79.1% (n= 2005/2536) collected from all the three study districts, however, G. fuscipes 21% (n=531/2536) was collected only from Kucha district. A total of 12 species were twelve species identified were; Ancala. Africana, Atylotus agrestis, Tbanus donaldsoni, T. gratus, T. taeniola variatus, T. taeniatus, T. par, Stomoxys. n. nigra, S. sitiens, S. indica, Glossina pallidipes and G. f. fuscipes. Haematopota and chrysop were identified in to genus level. Apparent densities (AD) of Tabanids, Stomoxys, G. f. fuscipes. Haematopota and chrysop were identified in to genus level. Apparent densities (AD) of Tabanids, Stomoxys, G. f. fuscipes, and G. pallidipes collected from Arba Minch were 1.72, 2.6, 0 and 20.8, respectively. In Mirab Abaya district the apparent densities (AD) of Tabanids, stomoxys, G. f. fuscipes, and G. pallidipes were 0.18, 1.27, 0 and 14.61 whereas in Kucha district the AD of 0.18, 0.3, 8.85 and 0.08 was recorded for Tabanid, Stomoxys, G. f.fuscipes, and G. pallidipes, respectively. The overall catch of G. pallidipes in Arba Minch was significantly higher than the catch in Mirab Abaya (P= 0.0006) and Kucha (P=0.0000) districts. The overall catch of the sticky trap of all fly types was significantly higher than the biconical trap. The Biconical viii trap showed significantly better efficiency (P= < 0.05) than NGU in the catch of Stomoxys and G. f.fuscipes. But the NGU trap showed better catch efficiency (P= < 0.0002) in G.pallidipes and Tabanids than the biconical trap. Of 409 blood samples examined by BCT, 15 were positive for Trypanosomes (n=3 T. vivax, n=12 T.congolensie) and prevalence was 3.4%. The overall mean PCV of cattle positive for trypanosomes was 20.4 which, however, the overall mean PCV of cattle negative for trypanosomes was 28.05.
Investigation of Arthropods and their Associated Protozoal and Bacterial Pathogens from Apparently Healthy Dogs and Cats in four Selected Districts of Southern Ethiopia
(Addis Ababa University, 2023) Hana Tadesse; Bersissa Kumsa
Dogs and cats are known to host several vector-borne diseases with zoonotic potential; however, little information is available on the epidemiology of these diseases in Ethiopia. The present study aims to investigate the diversity of arthropods and molecular identity of protozoal and bacterial vector-borne diseases in dogs and cats in selected districts of Gamo zone. Cross-sectional study design was used to determine the prevalence of arthropods and vector-borne diseases. Real-time and/or end-point PCR were used to identify vector-borne diseases. A total of 297 dogs and 110 cats were included for ectoparasites and blood samples. Questionnaires were applied for 290 dog and cat owners to obtain information concerning owner’s knowledge about arthropods and vector-borne diseases. The overall prevalence of ticks, fleas and lice in dogs was 36.7%, 69.7% and 4.7%, respectively. Ectoparasite prevalence on dogs was as follows: fleas (Ctenocephalides felis (C. felis) (69.4%), Echidnophaga gallinacea (E. gallinacea) (1.3%), Ctenocephalides canis (C. canis) (1.0%), and Pulex irritans (P. irritans) (0.3%)), ticks (Amblyomma variegatum (A. variegatum) (22.9%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (R. sanguineus) (14.1%), Haemaphysalis leachi (H. leachi) (8.8%), Rhipicephalus praetextatus (R. praetextatus) (4.0%), and Rhipicephalus pulchellus (Rh. pulchellus) (3.4%)), lice (Heterodoxus spiniger (H. spiniger) (4.0%) and Trichodectes canis (T. canis) (0.7%)) were identified. Blood samples were collected from a total of 273 dogs and then analyzed by real-time and/or end-point PCR for VBDs. The results of the study showed that Hepatozoon canis (H. canis) was the most prevalent pathogen (53.8%), followed by Anaplasma phagocytophilum (A. phagocythophilum) (7.0%), Babesia canis rossi (B. canis rossi) (3.3%), Ehrlichia canis (E. canis) (2.6%) and Anaplasma platys (A. platys) (2.2%). Furthermore, five samples tested positive for Borrelia spp., identified as B. afzelii (n = 3) and B. burgdorferi (n = 2), and two samples for Rickettsia spp., identified as R. conorii (n = 1) and R. monacensis (n = 1). On cats the prevalence of ticks was 2.7% and fleas was 21.8%. Fleas (C. felis (15.5%), and E. gallinacea (7.3%)) tick (H. leachi (2.7%)) was identified from cats. In cats, among Hepatozoon spp., H. felis (n=24; 21.8%) is the more widespread pathogen followed by H. ingwe (n=7; 6.4%), H. lluiperdije (n=7; 6.4%) and H. canis (n=1; 0.9%). Babesia leo (n=1; 0.9%) was identified from one cat. Eight cats were positive for bacterial pathogens, specifically Bartonella spp., (n=2; 1.8%) and Rickettsia spp., (n=6; 5.5%). All cats were negative for Cytauxzoon spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., and Borrelia spp. Abundance of C. felis, in dogs was significantly higher (p<0.001), while E. gallinacea was significantly more abundant in cats (p=0.002). Ectoparasite occurrence on dogs varied with different factors. A high prevalence of tick infestation was recorded in urban areas (p=0.020) and in lowlands (p<0.001). Nevertheless, the prevalence of A. variegatum in rural area and midland agroecology was significantly higher (p<0.001). Rhipicephalus Sanguineus prevalence was higher in urban areas (<0.001) and in dogs which lives in indoor environment (p=0.003). H. leachi prevalence was significantly higher in midland (p<0.001) and on adult dogs (p=0.001). Fleas are more prevalent in rural (p=0.029) areas compared to urban areas and females was slightly higher infested by fleas than male (p=0.047) dogs. C. felis was more prevalent in female (p=0.038) dogs than males. Around 88.3% owners in the study area had no knowledge about arthropods and VBDs. Majority of the owners (64.8%) never visited veterinary clinics. The findings of A. phagocythophilum and different species of the genera Borrelia and Rickettsia with zoonotic potential from dogs was unexpected and alarming, and calls for further investigation on the roles of dogs and on the tick species acting as vector in this specific context. Other pathogens (H. canis, B. canis rossi, A. platys, and E. canis) are already known to have an important impact on the dogs’ health but have minor zoonotic potential as they were rarely or never reported in humans. Dogs from rural areas were found to be at higher risk for different pathogens, probably due to the presence of other wild canids in the same environment. Moreover, most of the pathogens reported in the studied cat population were identified for the first time in the country. In conclusion, the findings of the present study contribute to a better knowledge of dog and cat ectoparasites and on the epidemiology of associated vector-borne pathogens, in most cases relevant to human and animal health. Therefore, the data presented in this study are important for building new knowledge and this give rise to awareness creation and strengthening veterinary services for companion animals.
Species Diversity and Seasonal Dynamics of Helminths of Cattle in Ada’a and Boset Districts, Central Oromia, Ethiopia
(2017-06) Solomon Mosu; Bersissa Kumsa
Parasitic helminths are one of the major health constraints of cattle production and are usually associated with huge economic losses in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 720 cattle selected using purposive sampling technique in Ada’a and Boset districts, Central Oromia Ethiopia from August 2016 to May 2017. The objective of the study was to identify the prevailing helminths species of cattle and assess the seasonal dynamics in the study districts. Simple floatation, sedimentation, McMaster egg counting techniques, coproculture recovery of infective larvae (L3) of nematodes and larvae measurement using micrometer were all employed in this study. The overall prevalence of helminths in cattle was 57.4% (413/720) dominated by nematodes. The study identified Haemonchus placei (H. placei) (36.7%), Trichostrongylus axei (T. axei) (18.1%), Oesophagostomum radiatum (Oe. radiatum) (21.9%), Bunostomum phlebotomum (B. phlebotomum) (10%), Strongyloides papillosus (S. papillosus) (6.3%), Nematodirus spp. (0.7%), Moneizia benedeni (M. benedeni) (4.2%), M. expansa (1.1%), Fasciola spp. (5.7%), and Paramphistomum spp. (3.5%). Of these helminths H. placei was recorded as the predominant species affecting cattle of both study districts. Higher number of helminths species were recorded in highland PAs of Ada’a district than lowland Boset district. Significantly (p < 0.05) higher number of helminths was observed during the rainy season than the short rainy and dry seasons in both districts. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that cattle in Boset district were 1.77 times (OR = 1.77, 95%; CI = 1.28-2.46) more likely to become positive for helminths than those cattle found in highland PAs of Ada’a district. Likewise, during the short rainy season and during rainy season cattle were 1.8 times (OR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.19-2.74) and twice (OR = 2.35, 95% CI=1.57-2.50), respectively, more likely to become positive for helminths than during the dry season of the year. The likelihood occurrence of helminths in diarrheic cattle was 8.7 times (OR = 8.7; 95% CI = 5.06-15.07) higher than those cattle with normal faecal consistency. Negative Binomial regression analysis showed that strongyle mean EPG count was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in cattle of Boset district than the mean EPG count of cattle in highland PAs of Ada’a district. Mean EPG count was higher during the rainy season (1001.0±51.1) than both short rainy (705.5±43.2) and dry (631.7±35.4) seasons. Of the total 366 coprocultures, 264 (72.1%) were positive for H. placei followed by 158 (43.2 %) Oe. radiatum, 130 (35.5%) T. axei and 72 (19.7%) B. phlebotomum. In conclusion, results of the present study demonstrate that several genera and species of helminths are still widespread and very common with high prevalence that compromise the productivity and health of cattle, especially during the long and short rainy season in both Ada’a and Boset districts. Thus, it is very important to consider urgent control interventions to minimize the negative impact of helminths on health and economic benefits of cattle of the study districts.
Species Diversity and Seasonal Pattern of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens of Cattle in Ada‟A And Boset Districts, Central Oromia, Ethiopia
(2017-06) Misgana Naramo; Bersissa Kumsa
Ticks and tick-borne pathogens are the major health constraints of cattle productivity and contribute to significant economic losses in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 2016 through May 2017 to determine the species diversity and seasonal pattern of ticks on cattle during the rainy, dry and short rainy seasons and occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in the highland PAs of Ada‟a and Boset districts, central Oromia, Ethiopia. Ticks were identified to species level by using morphological identification keys under a stereomicroscope. In addition, molecular tools were employed to assess the presence of tick-borne pathogens in blood samples collected from cattle. During the study period, a total of 720 cattle were examined for presence of ticks. The study revealed that 659 (91.5%) of cattle were infested by one or more ticks during the study period. A total of 7430 (5220 males and 2210 females) adults and 794 immatures (46 larvae and 748 nymphs) stages of ixodid ticks that belong to a total of eleven species were collected from cattle during the study period. During the rainy period nine species of ticks belonging to three genera (Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma) and subgenus Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) were identified, whereas ten and nine species of ixodid ticks were recorded during the dry season and short rainy season, respectively. In Ada‟a district, a total of 3612 ticks were collected in various seasons. From this 907, 987 and 1718 adults and immature ticks were collected and identified in rainy, dry and short rainy seasons, respectively. Nine adult tick species and immature stages of genera (Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus) and subgenus Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) were identified. In Boset district, out of 4612 adults and immature ticks collected, 1235, 621 and 2756 were collected during the rainy, dry and short rainy seasons, respectively. Nine adult tick species and immature stages of genera (Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus) were identified. In the highland (Ada‟a), Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, Hyalomma rufipes, Hyalomma truncatum and Rhipicephalus evertsi were the five most commonly encountered tick species on cattle. In the lowland (Boset) district Rhipicephalus pulchellus, Amblyomma gemma, Hyalomma rufipes and Hyalomma truncatum are widely distributed tick species. Amblyomma variegatum (59.6%) and Rhipicephalus pulchellus (77.8%) were the most abundant tick species in Ada‟a (highland) and Boset (lowland) agroecology, respectively.Furthermore, a total of 240 blood samples (120 in Ada‟a and 120 in Boset) were examined by real time PCR to detect the DNA of Babesia bigemina, Ehrilichia ruminantium, Anaplasma centrale, Anaplasma marginale and Trypanosoma theileri in the blood of cattle. Result of the study showed that a total of 182 (75.8%) blood samples were positive for at least one of the aforementioned tick-borne pathogens. Moleular result revealed that Anaplasma marginale (63.4%) was the most prevalent tick-borne pathogens followed by Babesia bigemina (20%) and Ehrilichia ruminantium (10.5%). Anaplasma centrale (4.2%) and Trypanosoma theileri (1.7%) were the least in Boset and Ada‟a districts, respectively. In conclusion, findings of this study suggest that ticks and tick-borne pathogens were the most important problems of cattle of the study areas. Therefore, the increasing threat of ticks and tick-borne pathogens of cattle warrants urgent strategic application of acaricides and creation of awareness among livestock owners to prevent and control tick infestation and tick-borne pathogens of cattle.
Studies on Prevalence, Economic and Public Health Importance of Hydatidosis in Slaughtered Animals at Addis Ababa Abattoir, Ethiopia
(2008-06) Kebebe Erbeto; Bersissa Kumsa
A cross sectional survey was conducted from November 2007 to April 2008 with the following objectives, to determine the prevalence of hydatidosis in food animals slaughtered at Addis Ababa Abattoir, study the effect of risk factors on the prevalence of hydatidosis, evaluate the size, fertility and viability of the cysts, assess the economic losses and the public health significance of the disease. Routine meat inspection procedures was conducted whereby livers, lungs, hearts, kidneys and spleens were visualized, palpated and incised to detect the presence of the cysts. The sizes of the cysts were determined by measuring the diameters in cm. Fertility was evaluated by observing the presence of protoscoleces under the microscope and viability was determined. The annual economic losses were calculated by multiplying the number of annually condemned organs with the current market value of organs. The public health significance was assessed by structured questionnaire survey. Out of the total of 3430 cattle, sheep, goats and pigs slaughtered and inspected at Addis Ababa Abattoir, 639 (18.6 %) had hydatid cysts. Prevalence of 254 (21 %), 206 (19.9 %), 102 (16 %) and 77 (14 %) were recorded in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, respectively. Prevalence of 132 (20.9 %), 85 (22.4 %) and 37 (18.7 %) was registered in cattle of Borana, Arsi and Abyssinian Zebu breeds, respectively. There was no significant variations by cattle breeds. Even though higher prevalence was detected in cattle from midland areas 124 (21.3 %) than in cattle originated from lowland areas 130 (20.5 %), there was no significant difference in prevalence in cattle from the two origins. The prevalence in cattle were found infected in age of > years old, 125 in age of 4-6 years (49%), and < 2 -4 years old 12 (4.7 %). Prevalence of 88 (8.5 %), 53 (5.1 %) and 65 (6.3 %) was recorded in Black Head – Ogaden, Adal and Abyssinian sheep breeds, respectively. Sheep under less than 1 year 77 (7.4 %) was more infected than sheep above 3 years of age 11 (1.1 %) and the difference in prevalence was significant. The prevalence of hydatidosis in Arsi- Bale and Keffa goat breeds were 53 (8.3 %) and 49 (7.6 %), respectively. The frequency of infection was higher in pigs kept at backyard 55 (10 %) than those managed under intensive husbandry system 22 (4 %). Out of the total 2071 cysts isolated from the different organs of cattle, 1007 (48.6 %) were small, 711 (34.3 %) medium and 353 (17 %) were large. More cysts were counted in the lungs of cattle, sheep and goats, but more cysts were found in swine's liver than in lung. Out of the total of 396 cysts isolated from organs of cattle, 217 (54.8 %) were fertile, 133 (33.6 %) sterile and 46 (11.6 %) were calcified. Out of X the 217 fertile cysts, 185 (85.3 %) were viable and 32 (17.3 %) were none viable. The annual economic loss was estimated to be 10,923,601.00 Ethiopian Birr, which is equivalent to 1,139,061.63 USD. 234 cases of human hydatidosis were surgically treated at the Tikur Anbassa Referral Hospital in Addis Ababa. The economic and public health significance of the disease is discussed and pertinent conclusions are drawn.
Ticks of Ruminants and Equines in Anilemo Distirct, Hadyia Zone, Snnprs: Species Diversity, Efficacy and Usage of Acaricides
(2019-06) Mulugeta Melese; Bersissa Kumsa
Ticks are the major health and productivity constraints of ruminants and equines in Ethiopia. A cross sectional study was conducted from September 2018 to May 2019 in Anilemo district with the core intentions to identify tick species infesting ruminants and equines, estimate the prevalence, to assess species diversity, risk factors associated with infestation and the efficacy of the most commonly used acaricides in the study district. To achieve these objectives ticks were collected from animals for identification to species level under stereo-microscope, a questionnaire survey was conducted on acaricide usage and in vitro efficacy evaluation of acaricides was performed following classical procedures. Accordingly, during the study period, a total of 906 ruminants and equines were examined for presence of ticks, 50 persons were interviewed with structured questionnaires about the usage of acaricide in the area and 110 ticks were used to evaluate the efficacy of the commonly used acaricides by adult immersion test. The study revealed that an overall of 34.9% (316/906) animals were infested by one or more ticks during the study period. An overall of 3367 ixodid ticks (adults and immature stages) collected from infested animals were differentiated in to a total of five species that belonged to genus Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus and the sub genus Rhipicephalus (Boophilus). The major tick species identified in order of their prevalence and predominance were Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, Amblyomma variegatum, Amblyomma cohaerens, Rhipicephalus evertsi, Rhipicephalus pulchellus and Rhipicephalus praetextatus. In the present study Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus and Amblyomma variegatum were the most prevalent (95.2%) and both species (p < 0.05) were significantly associated with different risk factors like season, agroecology, age, colour and sex categories of the study animals. Furthermore, a total of 110 ticks were collected for the in vitro Adult immersion test to assess the efficacy of Diaznone and Ivermectine both of which were implicated as the most frequently used acaricides by results of the questionnaire survey. The standard modified adult immersion test (AIT) on a total of 80 Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus and 30 Amblyomma variegatum engorged female ticks showed that Ivermectine was highly effective than Diaznone. In conclusion, findings of this study suggest that ticks were the most important problem of ruminants and equines of the study area. In addition, the study on efficacy of the two most commonly used acaricides in the study area attest the fact that efficacy of these drugs is conserved against both Rh (B.) decoloratus and Amblyomma tick species of the study. Therefore, the possible threat of tick infestation on ruminants and equines warrants all rounded attention regarding strategic application of acaricides and creation of awareness on acaricide usage to prevent and control tick infestation. Further efficacy evaluations using different tick species and more sensitive efficacy evaluation methods involving larval and nymphal stages as well as in vivo efficacy trial at field level should be conducted to obtain more reliable information on efficacies of acaricides in different parts of Ethiopia.

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